France Minister Robert Prigent National Assembly Health 1946 Original Negatives

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Seller: memorabilia111 ✉️ (807) 100%, Location: Ann Arbor, Michigan, US, Ships to: US & many other countries, Item: 176277810633 FRANCE MINISTER ROBERT PRIGENT NATIONAL ASSEMBLY HEALTH 1946 ORIGINAL NEGATIVES. Although the French film market is dominated by Hollywood, France is the only nation in the. from 9 a.m. to 1 p.m.. from 9:30 p.m. to midnight at the latest;. from 3 p.m. to 8 p.m.. Jean Bornard : 1970-1981. 7 VINTAGE ORIGINAL 4X5 INCH NEGATIVES FROM 1946 WITH ORIGINAL PHOTOGRAPHER ENVELOPE AND 2 PAGES OF PAPER DESCRIPTIONS. ALL FROM 1946 OF ROBERT PRIGENT. Robert Prigent was a French politician. He served as a member of the National Assembly from 1945 to 1951, representing Nord. He was also the Minister of Population and Public Health from 1945 to 1947. Photographer махIXKX John Albert ORIGINAL Date Oct 18, 1916 Story Names (Lto R)minister of population--France. informal reception at ht the Rainbow "loom Bockefeller Plaza 54-10-9-21- Robert Foreign, Minister of Population of France. At informal reception given by the #french Government to Americans in honor of their contributions to France during the Recent War… medals were honored to many people in the form of bronze, silver and gold, 33-M.De Marolles,, Counsel General of France to U.S.-- Bobert Prigent, Minister of Pop. and More. De Maroilles ire or Consular 15-16-Prigent addressing audience. F21 seta 2-60
Robert Prigent , born on November 24 ,1910in Saint-Pol-sur-Mer ( North ) and died on July 13 ,1995in Paris ( Ile de France ), is a politician and trade unionist French . Summary Biography To modify He was secretary of the local union of CFTCunions inDunkirk when he joined the People's Democratic Party. He organized theWorkers' Family Movement during the war. In September 1943 , he was a member of the Provisional Consultative Assembly in Algiers. He represents theCivil and Military Organization(CMO). He passed an amendment to the ordinance on the organization of public powers which introduced the vote for women. At the Liberation, Robert Prigent was appointed to head the general family commissariat. He defends theLaboroption during the constitution ofthe Popular Republican Movement(MRP). He was elected MRP deputy of the Nord department to the two constituent assemblies then deputy to theNational Assembly ( 1945 - 1951). He is several times Minister, notably of Population. He then exercised various functions in the associative environment in relation to his Christian and union convictions [ 3 ] . Government functions To modify Minister of Population in the Charles de Gaulle government (2) (fromNovember 21, 1945 to January 26, 1946) Minister of Public Health and Population of the Félix Gouin government (fromJanuary 26 to June 24, 1946) Minister of Population in the Georges Bidault government (1) (fromJune 24 to December 16, 1946) Minister of Public Health and Population of the Paul Ramadier government (fromMay 9 to October 22, 1947) Secretary of State for the Presidency of the Council of the Government Georges Bidault (2) (fromFebruary 14th to July 2, 1950) Secretary of State for the Interior of the Henri Queuille government (2) (from 2 toJuly 12, 1950) Awards To modify Commandeur de la Légion d'honneur Commander of the Legion of Honor , Grand-croix de l'ordre national du Mérite Grand Cross of the National Order of Merit , Commandeur de l'ordre de la Santé publique Commander of the Order of Public Health , Chevalier de l'ordre du Mérite social Knight of the Order of Social Merit . Tribute To modify Place Robert Prigent in Dunkirk. A place in Dunkirk has been named after him since June 19 ,1996[ 4 ] . A park bears his name in Saint-Pol-sur-Mer [ 5 ] . The French Confederation of Christian Workers ( CFTC ) is a union of French employees referring, when it was founded in 1919, to the social doctrine of the Church (DSE). Since 1947, it has been inspired by Christian social morality which refers to the DSE. During the confederal congress of November 1964, a rupture occurred between the left wing of the movement, influenced by Marxism (70% of the mandates, approximately), favorable to the class struggle , and those who remained attached to Christian values. The minorities decided to keep the Christian-inspired CFTC while the majority gave the name of the French Democratic Confederation of Labor(CFDT) to the structure resulting from the transformation. A long and complex legal battle ensued. Justice ended up recognizing that one could not qualify as a split the attitude of the minority since it continued the spirit and the Christian values ​​of the great CFTC. On a material level, the law of the majority allowed the CFDT to recover almost all of the heritage of the former CFTC. Since the return of the CFDT to the reformist camp, relations between CFTC and CFDT have calmed down. The CFTC was recognized as "  representative  " by an interministerial decree of 1966, in the same way as the CFDT , the CFE-CGC , the CGT and the CGT-FO under the irrebuttable presumption . After the end of this (by the law of August 20, 2008 which put an end to this situation by introducing new criteria of union representativeness ), it retained its representativeness having fulfilled the new criteria during professional elections. With the CFDT , the UNSA and the CFE-CGC , it constitutes the “ reformist pole  ” of the French trade union centers 1 . Summary 1 Story 1.1 XIX th  century 1.2 The foundation 1.3 Establishment in mines 1.4 World War II and the Resistance 1.5 The deconfessionalisation of 1964 and the “maintained” CFTC 1.6 Reformist and democratic unionism 2 Values ​​and Identity 2.1 General values 2.2 Opposition to marriage by same-sex couples 3 Organization 3.1 Confederal congresses 3.2 Presidents 3.3 General Secretaries 3.4 Professional federations 4 Representativeness 4.1 Labor elections 5 Bibliography 6 Notes and references 7 See as well 7.1 Related article 7.2 external links History  xix th  century Christian unionism was born in the form of an "Association of young workers", founded by Maurice Maignen in 1855, which in 1865 became the "Circle of young workers", better known under the name of Cercle Montparnasse, located at 126, boulevard du Montparnasse 2 . In 1871 , after the Paris Commune , Count Albert de Mun relied on this circle to create a national association, the Oeuvre des cercles catholiques d'ouvriers , also called the "circles ouvriers", which had 375 circles in France. in 1878 . the March 21, 1884, the repeal of the Le Chapelier Law by the Waldeck-Rousseau law legalizes unions, which allows the creation in 1886 of the Syndicate of French Journalists , under the name of "Corporation of Christian Publicists". Its founder is Victor de Marolles , director of the journal of the Work of Catholic Circles of Workers . The following year saw the birth of the Union of Trade and Industry Employees , only male, bringing together 18 activists of the Work, theSeptember 13, 1887. Chaired by Paul Baé, he moved to rue des Petits Carreaux in Paris, where he opened a workers' restaurant 3 . Four years later, he launched his own newspaper L'employé, then structured in 1894 around 4 groups  : administrative employees, fabrics, clerks and building. At the same time, outside the Christian sphere, the National Federation of Trade Unions , ancestor of the CGT , appeared in 1886 and the Paris Bourse du Travail in 1887 . The foundation  After the intense industrial effort of the First World War , the Christian unions born in 1886 - 1887 initiated the founding of the CFTC on the 1 st and November 2 , 19193 . It brings together 321 unions and claims to be part of the Rerum Novarum encyclical . The objective is to counter the omnipotence of the CGT in the working class. The slogan of the new CFTC is "social peace". At the start of the year, there were still just over 5,000 members and three federations: free education, railway workers and employees, as well as two federations of exclusively female unions 4 , including the Union of Free Women's Trade Unions 5 . But quickly, the "Federation of Independent Trade Unions of Alsace and Lorraine", led by Mulhousien Camille Bilger (1879-1947), Léon Adolf and Jean Keppi took a leading role in the beginnings of the new union, bringing its 21,000 members, mainly in textiles and mining. Established in 1920, the CFTC now has 578 unions and 156,000 members, including 43,000 employees, and 35,000 railway workers [ref. necessary]. Also in 1920, the CFTC helped with other European Christian unions to found the International Confederation of Christian Trade Unions. Created in May 1920 6 , the Federation of Metallurgy CFTC decides in 1922 to create a federal resistance fund, to help strikers, despite the advice of Henri Meck , who underlines the failure of professional funds, and recalls the success of inter-professional funds in Alsace 6 . Implantation in the mines  Son of an industrial designer from Saverne, Henri Meck joined the “Federation of Christian Trade Unions of Alsace and Lorraine” in 1929 and in 1922 became its general secretary. In Pas-de-Calais , Jules Pruvost and his colleague Jules Catoire founded in the back room of the café "L'Espérance", the "Free Union of Miners" (SLM), which came up against pressure from the managers of the coalmines. at the Bishop's Palace 7 . In December, Jules Pruvost was elected general secretary 7 . In 1924, the SLM became part of the French Federation of Professional Trade Unions for Minors, led by Henri Meck, who worked on the establishment of the CFTC within the coal mines of Lorraine, then became secretary general of the CFTC Federation of Miners, joined by Louis Delaby 8 . The CFTC is the first national organization to propose a union path other than that based on Marxist or anarcho-syndicalist analyzes . The ideological fund of social Christianity gives it an autonomy and a legitimacy that other non-socialist trade union organizations, such as yellow trade unionism , cannot acquire. In 1937 , the CFTC saw the membership of a first secular union, the General Union of National Education (SGEN). Gaston Tessier was the first secretary general of the CFTC, Jules Zirnheld was its first president, a position he held until 1940 . The Second World War and the Resistance  Example of membership card with monthly contribution stamps. The CFTC was officially dissolved in November 1940 by the Vichy regime . Jules Pruvost joined the resistance and took care of a sector which took charge of the Allied airmen 9 . Jules Catoire , helped by Joseph Sauty , Louis Delaby and Joseph Martin, distributes the Cahiers du Témoignage chretien in the Pas-de-Calais department 9 , as well as the underground newspaper La Voix du Nord . Louis Delaby takes a stand in favor of union pluralism 10 and supports Gaston Tessierin its fight against a participationist tendency within Catholic circles. The latter, founder of the Liberation-North resistance movement , represents the CFTC at the National Council of the Resistance and publishes an article in the daily L'Aube "Syndicalismes" to insist on the place which must return to the union fact and to stress that the CFTC and the CGT "gave the Resistance an extremely devoted support which was accentuated on the eve of the national uprising by the general strike order launched by mutual agreement by the committee of understanding". Due to the action of some of its members in the Resistance (it is an active member of the National Council of the Resistance ), the CFTC is maintained, at the Liberation , as a representative trade union organization despite the hostility of the CGT , which goes to the Council of State to have it banned. In 1962, two branches of the CFTC (technicians and land workers) merged to become the General Federation of Agriculture , a federation which joined the CFDT when deconfessionalization 11 . The secularization of 1964 and the CFTC "held"  In 1964 , it is the deconfessionalisation of the CFTC  : a majority of the CFTC led by the “Reconstruction” group around Paul Vignaux , Albert Détraz , Jacques Delors 12 decides the “deconfessionalisation” (abandonment of the reference to Christian social morality ) while remaining behind the choice of the class struggle 13 to give birth to the French Democratic Confederation of Labor ( CFDT) . Quickly, the CFDT declares to place its action within the framework of the class struggle . It is closer to socialism and in particular to the Unified Socialist Party (PSU) led byMichel Rocard , from 1966 to 1970, while a reformist minority decided to maintain a Christian powerhouse (around 10%). This "maintained CFTC" is directed by two of the organizers of the French miners' strike of 1963 , Joseph Sauty and Jean Bornard , supported in the East by Henri Meck 14 , the first having been identified by the press and the radios as the father. of this victorious, non-politicized and very followed strike 15 . Deputy Secretary General (1964), then in title (1970) of the power station, Jean Bornard was elected president in 1981 - a position he left in 1990 16 . The reformist and democratic trade unionism  In the meantime, in 1975, the CFTC was in favor of the Sudreau Report on company reform. Between 1981 and 1984, the CFTC played an important role in the defense of freedom of education, in particular through the determined action of the National Union of Christian Education (SNEC-CFTC), within Catholic education crossed by currents favorable to the government project, with a clear slogan: "Freedom cannot be negotiated". In 1988, it supported the creation of the minimum integration income ( RMI) and was neutral during the creation of the generalized social contribution ( CSG) in 1990. The union is in favor of 35 hours , youth jobs, the elaboration of the 1998 law against exclusions and the law creating universal health coverage ( CMU) . In 2006 , he presented his worker's statute project, launched by a “program report” in 1999 and implemented by a working group since 2003 . Between 2001 and 2006, in the works council elections, the CFTC was the only trade union confederation to progress, with 6.8% in 2006, 6.7% in 2003, 6% in 2001, against less than 5% in a few years earlier. However, with the law of August 20, 2008 "on the renovation of social democracy and reform of working time", the CFTC is not immune to losing, in several companies and professional branches, its representativeness. the 1 st May 2008, the CFTC brings together nearly 6,000 people during its unitary parade in Paris around the theme of purchasing power. In 2010, the CFTC made proposals to reform the pension system and participated in the five major days of events . She denounces most of the measures taken by the Minister of Labor Eric Woerth in his reform . The union demands an increase in old age contributions and a taxation of new capital income; it offers, including a 3% tax on profits not reinvested and requires a broader base of contributions to certain income: stock options , retirement-hat , participation , sharing 17 . It also proposes a one point increase in theCSG , which would make it possible to generate eleven billion euros in resources, and that part of the CSG be "flagged", with effective control over the allocation of sums paid to the old age branch. The CFTC also demands that all reductions in social contributions be offset to the nearest cent by taxes 18 . In April 2017, in the period between the two rounds of the 2017 presidential election between Marine Le Pen and Emmanuel Macron , the CFTC criticized "protectionism and blind economic policies, such as the return to the franc", "l “France's self-exclusion from the European Union” and “the exclusion of foreigners” advocated by the FN, which according to the union are incompatible with its “humanist values” 19 . Values ​​and identity  General values  The CFTC promotes negotiation, discussion, even mediation before any more industrial action. For this organization, a strike is only the ultimate solution when all other means have not given satisfaction. Among its workhorses, the CFTC insists that life is more than work. This value is and has been the basis of many fights, from the establishment of family allowances, for example, to the defense of Sunday rest as a day common to most citizens for family life, leisure, etc. sport, volunteering, etc. For the CFTC, society should not be limited to consumption. The CFTC wants to put the worker at the center of his life, making him an actor to the maximum of his choices and his future when possible. To do this, it recommends that the routes be secure so that everyone can really make choices, without being subjected to a situation or a system. In the same vein, the trade union organization leaves great freedom to the unions that make it up, aware that they are more aware of the reality to defend the workers on the ground. This is what she calls the principle of "subsidiarity" . This does not prevent him from calling to order, or even putting certain organizations under supervision. The CFTC asserts itself independent of any party and any organization. For her, the reference to Christianity is understood as an attachment to Christian social doctrine (solidarity, fraternity, social justice, etc.), not as a denominational identity. The members are not necessarily Christians but are found in the values ​​advocated by the CFTC. Opposition to marriage for same-sex couples  Even if the CFTC banned the use of his name during events organized by La Manif pour tous , several personalities from the union took a stand against the right to same- sex marriage . Despite this ban, Pasquier Cognacq, president of the CFTC retirees, will organize travel in 2013 on behalf of his union, to go and demonstrate against the right of homosexual couples to marry 20 . The vice president of the union: Joseph Thouvenel will make a speech in his own name, at the grandstand during the demonstration of October 16, 2012 of La Manif pour tous . A photo of him with Marion Maréchal will also be controversial 21 , 22 The union itself, through its president Philippe Louis, in 2012, will demonstrate its opposition to marriage for same-sex couples in an interview with AFP 23 . Organization  The CFTC is divided into 17 regional unions and 93 departmental and interdepartmental unions. It has 650 unions grouped into 14 professional federations (trade-services-sales forces, private education, metallurgy, local authorities, transport, telecommunications, banks, etc.). It claims 140,000 members 24 . Every four years, unions meet in Congress and elect a Council, which elects a Bureau. The Confederal Council meets three times a year and is responsible for overseeing the executive. The executive is two-headed, it is made up of an executive commission and the national office. The CFTC is a member of the European Trade Union Confederation (ETUC) and the International Trade Union Confederation (ITUC). Previously it belonged to the World Confederation of Labor (WCL). The headquarters of the CFTC are in Paris XV, at 45 rue de la Procession. Congress confederal  This section is empty, insufficiently detailed or incomplete. Your help is welcome! How to do ? 1887: Creation of the Trade and Industry Employees Union 1912: Pentecost Congress, creation of the Federation of Employees 1919: Foundation of the CFTC 1920: First congress of the CFTC 1921: 2 nd Congress 1922: 3 rd Congress 1923 4 th Congress 1924 5 th Congress 1925 6 th Congress 1926 7 th Congress 1927 8 th Congress 1928 9 th Congress 1929: 10 th Congress 1930: 11 th Congress 1931 12 th Congress 1932 13 th Congress 1933 14 th Congress 1934 15 th Congress 1935 16 th Congress 1936 Congress in May 1936 ( 17 th ) 1936 17 th Congress 1937 18 th Congress 1938 19 th Congress 1939: 20 th Congress Between 1940 and 1945: the Confederation goes underground. 1945: 21 st Congress 1946: 22 nd Congress 1947: 23 rd Congress 1948: 24 th Congress 1949: 25 th Congress 1951: 26 th Congress 1953: Congress of Asnieres ( 27 th ) 1955: 28 th Congress 1957: Congress of Asnieres ( 29 th ) 1959: Congress of Issy-Les-Moulineaux ( 30 th ) 1961: Congress of Issy-Les-Moulineaux ( 31 th ) 1963: Congress of Issy-Les-Moulineaux ( 32 th ) 1964: Extraordinary Congress of Paris, split between the CFDT and the "CFTC maintained" 1965: Congress of Vincennes ( 33 th ) 1967: Congress Issy-Les-Moulineaux ( 34 e ) 1969: Congress of Issy-Les-Moulineaux ( 35 th ) 1971: Congress Clichy ( 36 th ) 1973: Congress Clichy ( 37 th ) 1975: Congress Clichy ( 38 th ) 1977: Congress of Versailles ( 39 th ) 1979 Strasbourg Convention ( 40 th ) 1981 Congress in Lyon ( 41 th ) 1984 Congress of Marseille ( 42 th ) 1987: Congress of Versailles ( 43 rd ) 1991: Lille Congress ( 44 th ) 1993: Congress of Versailles ( 45 th ) 1996 Nantes Congress ( 46 th ) 1999: Dijon Congress ( 47 th ) 2002: Toulouse Congress ( 48 th ) 2005: Bordeaux Congress ( 49 th ) 2008: Strasbourg Congress ( 50 th ) 2011: Poitiers Congress ( 51 th ) 2015: Congress Vichy ( 52 th ) 2019: Marseille Congress ( 53 rd ) Presidents  Jules Zirnheld  : 1919-1940 Georges Torcq  : 1945-1948 Gaston Tessier  : 1948-1953 Maurice Bouladoux  : 1953-1961 Georges Levard  : 1961-1964 Joseph Sauty  : 1964-1970 Jacques Tessier  : 1970-1981 25 Jean Bornard  : 1981-1990 Guy Drilleaud: 1990-1993 Alain Deleu  : 1993-2002 Jacques Voisin  : 2002-2011 Philippe Louis: 2011-2019 Cyril Chabanier: From 2019 26 Secretaries General  Gaston Tessier  : 1919-1940 then 1944-1948 Maurice Bouladoux  : 1948-1953 Georges Levard  : 1953-1961 Eugène Descamps  : 1961-1964 Jacques Tessier  : 1964-1970 Jean Bornard  : 1970-1981 Guy Drilleaud: 1981-1990 Alain Deleu  : 1990-1993 Jacques Voisin  : 1993-2002 Jacky Dintinger: 2002-2008 Philippe Louis: 2008-2011 Pascale Coton: 2011-2015 Bernard Ssez: 2015-2019 Eric Heitz: from 2019 Professional federations  State agents (State Civil Service) 27 . Agriculture: mutuality, credit, cooperation, agricultural workers, SICA, rural family houses, various organizations. Banks: financial institutions, Crédit populaire, Crédit mutuel, stock exchange, Savings banks, AFB banks, CFF, Banque de France. Bâti-Mat TP: building, public works. CMTE (chemicals, mines, textiles, energy) 28  : chemical and related industries, mines, quarries, mining social protection regime, textiles, leather, clothing and related, electricity and gas industries, energy. FFPT (Federation of Territorial Public Service) CSFV (commerce, services and sales force) 29  : hotels, cafes, restaurants, bars, collective catering, non-food trade, food trade, services, tertiary services, agro-food, sales force. Communication: press, advertising, show. Education and Training bringing together the National Union of Christian Education (SNEC) and the National Union of Private Secular Education (SNEPL). CFTC Metallurgy Federation 30 Media +: staff and former staff of Post and Telecom companies, engineering sectors, design offices and consulting companies, audiovisual, journalists, cardboard, publishing 31 . PSE Federation (Social Protection and Employment) 32  : Social Security, work and employment (Pôle Emploi), training. CFTC Santé-Social Federation 33 , which brings together unions from the public ( CFTC APHP ), private and personal services sectors. Transport (General Federation of Transport CFTC) 34  : rail, air, sea and river, urban, road, transport services. Representativeness  The representativeness of the CFTC allows it to participate in national interprofessional negotiations and to be represented in joint bodies . But, since the law "on the renovation of social democracy" published in the Official Journal of Aug 21 , 2008, the rules of union representativeness have changed. From now on, it is the company elections that condition it, at the level of companies with more than 10 employees from the entry into force of the 2008 law, as well as in professional branches and at inter-professional level. However it will be the 1 st January 2014, with the conclusions of the General Directorate of Labor, which performs the aggregation of the results of professional elections in enterprises and the vote taken in companies with fewer than ten employees ( TPE ) end 2012 and the agricultural sector elections in early 2013, to determine union representativeness by professional branch as well as at the national level. According to figures from the High Council for Social Dialogue published in March 2017, the CFDT is for the first time at the top of the professional elections held from 2013 to 2016 with 26.37% of the vote (+ 0.37 compared to 2013) ahead of CGT 24.85% (- 1.92 point), FO 15.59% (- 0.35), CFE-CGC 10.67% (+ 1.24 point), CFTC 9.49% (+ 0.19), UNSA 5.35% (+ 1.09) and Solidaires 3.46% (- 0.01). The relative weight (retained for the only representative organizations at the national level is 30.32% for the CFDT, 28.57% for the CGT, 17.93% for FO, 12.27% for the CFE-CGC and 10, 91% for the CFTC. 35 Prud'homales elections  The CFTC achieved a score of 8.94% in the industrial tribunal elections of December 2008, a decrease of 0.71 points compared to 2002 (9.65%), but above the 7.53% of those of 1997 Since 2013, the CFTC has fluctuated between 9.3% and 9.5% of the votes, which makes the central the 5th union in France and ensures it is representative at the national level (above the 8% threshold necessary to be representative) During the campaign for the 2008 elections, she innovated with the launch of a web miniseries, Dark Elevator 36 , which features several characters stuck in the social elevator. The slogan chosen for the labor court campaign is a synthesis of CFTC's approach: "To be able to oppose, always to propose". Trade union organization 1987 1992 1997 2002 2008 2013 2017 2021 CFTC 8.30 8.58 7.53 9.65 8.94% 9.30% 9.48% 9.50% 2008/2002 results by college 37  : Industry: 7.8 / 8.3% Trade: 9.1 / 10.0% Agriculture: 6.9 / 7.6% Various activities: 8.8 / 10.3% Supervision: 10.6 / 11.4% Overall: 8.9 / 9.6% Bibliography  Hubert Landier, Why the CFTC? Cerf , 1975, Preface by Jacques Tessier Michel Launay La CFTC, Origines et développement 1919- 1940 , Publications de la Sorbonne , 1987, Preface by Jean-Baptiste Duroselle of the Institute ( ISBN  2-85944-120-4 ) Jacques Tessier, The CFTC, how Christian unionism was maintained , Fayard , 1987, Preface by Henri Guitton ( ISBN  2-213-02034-5 ) Jacques Tessier, Marxism or Christian Social Doctrine? , Fayard , 1992, ( ISBN  2-213-02974-1 ) Robert Vandenbussche, "CFTC" in Historical Dictionary of French political life in xx th  century , Jean-François Sirinelli (ed.), PUF , 1995, 2003, coll. Quadrige Dicos Poche ( ISBN  978-2-13-052513-4 ) Alain Deleu, Work, take back your place , Fayard , 1997, ( ISBN  2-213-59982-3 ) Armel Gourmelon, Activist among many others , SPFC / Frédéric Aimard Éditeur, 2015, ( ISBN  979-10-92996-04-3 ) Jean-François Vanneste, The CFTC without complexes, 30 years of social construction unionism , SPFC / Frédéric Aimard Éditeur, 2015, ( ISBN  979-10-92996-03-6 ) Joseph Thouvenel, CFTC - 100 years of Christian unionism and beyond? , Tequi, 2019. Philippe Portier , A century of social construction. A history of the CFTC , Flammarion, 2019. The National Assembly is the French institution which forms, with the Senate , the Parliament of the Fifth Republic . Its role is to debate, propose, amend and vote on laws, and to control the action of the Government . Unlike the Senate, it has the power to force the resignation of the government by passing a motion of no confidence . It sits at the Palais Bourbon in Paris . Since 1986, the National Assembly has had 577 members, called deputies , elected by direct universal suffrage by first past the post in two rounds. for a period of five years. Since the beginning of the XV th Legislature in 2017, the largest group is that of the Republic running . The presidency of the National Assembly has been held by Richard Ferrand since September 2018. Summary 1 Story 2 Site 3 Role 3.1 Discussion and vote on the law 3.2 Control of government action 3.2.1 Confidence vote 3.2.2 Motion of censure 3.2.3 Responsibility commitment on a text 3.2.4 Other means of control 3.2.5 Questions 3.3 Other prerogatives 4 Dissolution 5 Organization of sessions and sessions 5.1 Sessions 5.2 Calendar 5.3 Agenda 5.4 Public sessions 5.5 Position of the actors 5.5.1 Cemetery " 5.6 Presidency 6 Elections of deputies 6.1 Conditions of eligibility 6.2 Organization of elections 6.3 Replacement of deputies 6.4 Gender and women's rights 7 Organization 7.1 Office 7.1.1 President of the National Assembly 7.1.2 Vice-presidents 7.1.3 Quaestors 7.1.4 Secretaries 7.2 Commissions 7.2.1 Standing legislative committees 7.2.2 Commissions of inquiry 7.2.3 Other instances 7.3 Political groups 7.4 Majorities and presidency since 1958 7.5 Details of the bureau, political groups, standing committees and delegations 7.6 Sycamore database 8 Administration 8.1 Officials 8.2 Budget 9 Notes and references 9.1 Notes 9.2 1958 constitution 9.3 Organic laws 9.4 Ordinance on the functioning of parliamentary assemblies 9.5 Other references 10 See as well 10.1 Bibliography 10.2 Related articles 10.3 external links History  Related article: History of French institutions . The Jeu de Paume oath is considered the beginning of French parliamentary history. The history of national representation for two centuries is closely linked to that of the democratic principle and the rugged path it had to travel before finding in French institutions the consecration that it deserves today. If the French have periodically elected representatives since 1789, the method of appointment and the powers of these representatives have varied considerably from time to time, the periods of erasure of the parliamentary institution generally coinciding with a decline in public freedoms. In this regard, denominations are not innocent. That of the National Assembly, chosen in the fervor of 1789, did not reappear - if we except the brief parenthesis of 1848 - only in 1946. In the meantime, different names followed (“  Conseil des Cinq-Cents  ” instituted by the Constitution of Year III in August 1795, “  Chamber of Deputies of Departments  ”, “  Chamber of Representatives  ”, “  Legislative Body ","  Chambers of Deputies  ", etc.). Location  Related article: Palais Bourbon . The Bourbon Palace seen from the Seine . The National Assembly sits in the Palais Bourbon Ord58 1 in the 7 th  arrondissement of Paris on the left bank of the Seine , in a building that houses since 1799 all lower houses of the French Parliament . Its monumental facade, slightly offset from the axis of the rest of the building, overlooks the famous Quai d'Orsay (the National Assembly is also next to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and is aligned with the Pont de la Concorde ) . If the main entrance is n o  126 of the rue de l'Université, you can also access it by the Quai d'Orsay (33-35) and by the rue Aristide-Briand . The Hôtel de Lassay , seat of the presidency and official residence of the President of the National Assembly , is also assigned to the Palais Bourbon Ord58 1 . All the buildings assigned to the National Assembly cover a floor area of ​​158,000  m 2 for nearly 9,500 premises. In addition to the Palais Bourbon, it is made up of four other buildings reserved for the offices of deputies and their collaborators 1  : a seven-storey building built in 1974 , located on the other side of rue de l'Université, at 101, and linked to the Palais Bourbon by an underground passage, a second located at 233 boulevard Saint-Germain (acquired in 1986 ), a third bought in 2002 , located 3 rue Aristide-Briand (former headquarters of the RPR ), purchased in 2016 when it housed ministerial offices, the Hôtel de Broglie must be renovated to replace the rental of offices at 3 rue Aristide-Briand 2 . Some of these buildings also house the services necessary for the functioning of the National Assembly. These services include in particular the IT department which ensures the proper functioning of the equipment used by legislative actors, but also all the digital platforms offered directly to Members of Parliament or Internet users. Other services such as accounting, human resources or administration are also housed in these premises. Finally, an official store is located at 7 rue Aristide-Briand . In a note published on the website of the Jean-Jaurès Foundation and made public in November 2017 , the LREM deputy Adrien Taquet suggests decentralizing the National Assembly in a large provincial city like Marseille , in a desire for symbolic rapprochement of elected officials towards citizens, while criticizing the premises of the xix th  century became inadequate 3 . Role  Related article: French Constitution of October 4, 1958 . The National Assembly is an institution of the V th Republic and forms with the Senate one chamber of the French Parliament . As such, it votes the law, controls the action of the government and evaluates public policies C 1 . Its powers are fixed by the Constitution . The National Assembly among the institutions of the V th Republic. The institutions of the Fifth Republic, set up in 1958 , correspond to the ideas of General de Gaulle , as he had set them out in 1946 . Until 1962 , the public authorities had to resolve the Algerian crisis . Then, a second phase begins, at the institutional level, with the election of the President of the Republic by direct universal suffrage and the appearance of a homogeneous majority in the National Assembly, and in the field of foreign policy. . The period of strong economic growth continued until 1973 . The re-composition of the majority after the 1974 presidential elections, then the political alternations of 1981 (presidential elections, then legislative elections after dissolution of the National Assembly), 1986 (legislative elections), 1988 (presidential elections, then legislative elections after dissolution of the National Assembly), 1993 (legislative elections , followed by presidential elections in 1995 ), 1997 (legislative elections, after dissolution of the National Assembly) 2002 and 2007gradually changed the way the institutions function. The National Assembly sees its role more and more asserted, both politically and in terms of government control, then confirmed by the constitutional revision of July 2008 . Discussion and vote on the law  Main article: Legislative process in France . The voting desk of a deputy. A legal text can originate with the Prime Minister (the text is then a “bill”) or a member of Parliament (“proposed law”). Certain laws are necessarily of governmental origin, such as finance laws . Bills may be submitted first to the National Assembly or to the Senate, except in the case of finance laws which first pass through the National Assembly, and laws having as their main object the organization of local authorities. or the representative bodies of French people living outside France who are first submitted to the Senate C 2 . For an ordinary bill or private bill, the text is first submitted to one of the standing parliamentary committees, or to a special committee appointed for this purpose C 3 . During the discussion in committee or in session, the Government and the Parliament may add, modify or delete articles ("amend the text"). Amendments by parliamentarians may not result in a reduction in public resources or the creation or aggravation of a public charge. The Government may request that the assembly vote in a single vote on all or part of the text under discussion, retaining only the amendments proposed or accepted by the Government C 4 . The bills or proposals of law are examined successively by the two assemblies until the text is identical. After two readings by the two chambers (or only one if the Government has decided to initiate the accelerated procedure without the Conferences of Presidents having jointly opposed it) without agreement, the Prime Minister or, for a bill, the Presidents of the two assemblies acting jointly, can convene a joint committee (composed of an identical number of senators and deputies) in charge of proposing a compromise text. This can be submitted by the Government for approval to both assemblies. No amendment is admissible except with the agreement of the Government. If the mixed commission does not succeed in adopting a common text or if this text is not adopted by the two assemblies, the Government may, after a new reading by the National Assembly and by the Senate, ask the National Assembly to take a final decision. In this case, the National Assembly may adopt either the text drawn up by the mixed committee, or the last text voted by it, modified if necessary by one or more of the amendments adopted by the Senate.C 5 . Laws can be referred to the Constitutional Council , before their promulgation, by the President of the Republic , the Prime Minister, the President of the National Assembly, the President of the Senate or sixty deputies or sixty senators C 6 . The President of the Republic promulgates the laws. He can ask Parliament for a new deliberation of the law or of some of its articles. This new deliberation cannot be refused C 7 . The President of the Republic, on a proposal from the Government or on a joint proposal from the two assemblies, may submit to referendum any bill relating to the organization of public powers, to reforms relating to the economic, social or environmental policy of the nation. and to the public services which contribute to it, or tend to authorize the ratification of a treaty which, without being contrary to the Constitution, would have an impact on the functioning of the institutions. A referendum on a subject mentioned above can be organized on the initiative of one fifth of the members of Parliament, supported by one tenth of the voters registered on the electoral lists C 8 . Control of Government action  As a chamber of Parliament, the National Assembly controls government policy . It has more power in this area than the Senate, through the procedures of vote of confidence, motion of censure, and commitment of responsibility by the government on a C 9 text . Concretely this means that the majority of the Assembly must be in agreement with the Government. Vote of confidence  Main article : Article 49 of the Constitution of the Fifth French Republic # The question of confidence (49 paragraph 1) . First of all, the government can ask the vote on a question of confidence in the National Assembly (and only it) relating to a government program or to a general policy statement. The vote of confidence generally takes place after the formation of each government after the presentation by the Prime Minister to the deputies of the government action that will be taken. It is in a way the parliamentary confirmation of the appointment of a Prime Minister and his government. But the head of government can also ask for the vote on a question of confidence in order to unite the majority behind him and thus strengthen his legitimacy in a period of crisis of confidence: this was the case in particular for Jacques Chaban-Delmas ,Prime Minister of Georges Pompidou , theJune 23, 1972, to bypass a scandal linked to the publication of the head of government's tax sheet by the Chained Duck on January 19 of that same year. Although he largely obtained this confidence (368 votes against 96), Jacques Chaban-Delmas nevertheless resigned a few days later, theJuly 5, 19724 , 5 . Since 1958, and at 1 st June 2017, there were 38 votes of confidence under this procedure 6 . Motion of censure  Main article : Article 49 of the Constitution of the Fifth French Republic # The motion of censure (49 paragraph 2) . The entrance to the National Assembly overlooking the street from the University at n o  126. The deputies can table, as soon as the necessary quota of signatures is met to support it (namely those of at least one tenth of the members of the Assembly, that is today of 58 deputies), a motion of censure, also known as “Spontaneous motion of censure”. This must be voted by an absolute majority of all the deputies, ie at least 289 votes “for”, which alone are counted, the abstainers and those absent being considered as rejecting the motion, in order to avoid the vote. of a motion by a "simple majority" of only those present which was the cause of the fall of many governments during previous Republican regimes. In addition, the vote must take place at least 48 hours after the tabling of the motion and after debate, so that deputies do not react spontaneously and give them time to reflect. If the government is censored, thePrime Minister must submit his resignation to the President of the Republic , without however the latter being required to accept it. Responsible for the fall of many governments in the III E and IV E Republics , the censure motion was only passed once since 1958. But even if it has little chance of success, especially when the The majority in place is quite clear, the motion of censure is a tool particularly used by the opposition to mark its disagreement with the general policy of the government or against flagship measures of the latter. Since 1958, and at 1 st June 2017, only one motion of censure was voted, on October 5, 1962Against the first Pompidou government to protest against the proposed constitutional amendments concerning the election of the President of the Republic in universal direct suffrage . The resignation of the government was however refused by Charles de Gaulle, President of the Republic who then decided to dissolve the Assembly 6 . Commitment of responsibility for a text  Main article : Article 49 of the Constitution of the Fifth French Republic # The commitment of responsibility on a text (49 paragraph 3) . The Government can have a bill adopted without a vote, without debate and without tabling an amendment directly related to this text. This provision is nicknamed "49-3" in reference to the article of the Constitution which established it. A motion of censure can however be filed against the government within 24 hours after calling 49-3 (this is then systematically filed by the opposition [ref. Necessary] ): if it is voted on, the text is rejected and the government, which engaged its responsibility on this bill, falls. This is also referred to as a “motion of censure provoked”. It has been used 88 times since the creation of the V th Republic in 1958 7 . Since 1 st March 2009- date of application of amendments to the 2008 Constitution - this provision is limited to the budget law , the law of financing social security , and more text per year. This power is particularly criticized by opposition MPs. They consider it undemocratic 8 . François Hollande , then in the opposition, denounced this article in 2006 during the law on equal opportunities 9  : "A violation of the rights of Parliament, brutality, a denial of democracy, a way of slowing down or preventing mobilization" . Its Prime Minister, Manuel Valls , will however use it in 2015 during the law relating to work, the modernization of social dialogue and the securing of professional careers . Supporters of this provision argue that it is the best way to avoid parliamentary obstruction and debates considered too long on measures deemed urgent 10 . Other means of control  The Parliament authorizes the declaration of war , it is informed of the intervention of the army abroad and authorizes its extension beyond four months C 10  ; it authorizes the extension beyond twelve days of the state of siege C 11 and the state of emergency 11 . The Parliament authorizes the taking of ordinances by the Government, which are normally the domain of the law. They are taken by the Council of Ministers after consulting the Council of State . They come into force as soon as they are published, but lapse if the ratification bill is not tabled in Parliament before the date set by the enabling law C 12 . The treaties are negotiated and ratified by the President of the Republic C. 13 . However, for most of them, ratification must be approved by Parliament C 14 . In the case of the ratification of a treaty relating to the accession of a State to the European Union , the first procedure is the referendum , but by the vote of a motion adopted in identical terms by each assembly by majority. of three-fifths, the Parliament can authorize the adoption of the bill of ratification by a vote of the parliamentarians meeting in Congress . In this case the text must obtain a majority of three fifths of the votes cast C 15 . Each assembly can vote on resolutions indicating a wish or a concern, addressed to the Government, these must not call into question its responsibility or contain injunctions with regard to it C 16 , LO 1 . It can also do so on draft European acts C 17. The Conference of Presidents of the National Assembly can set up fact-finding missions 12 . Questions  François Fillon , French Prime Minister from 2007 to 2012, answers the question of an elected member of the National Assembly, December 18, 2007. Members of Parliament can publicly question members of government in several ways. Written questions take place outside the meeting, the question as well as the minister's answer are published in the Official Journal . It is a very widely used procedure: from 3,700 written questions submitted in 1959 , it rose to 12,000 in 1994 and approximately 28,353 in 2011 13 . Faced with this excess, the Assembly debates in 2014 on limitation. Indeed, the 96% response rate during the term 1993 - 1997 drop to 68% and only a quarter of the questions is answered in the two months deadline 14 . The President of the National Assembly Claude Bartolone announces the June 22 , 2015 an annual limitation of the number of written questions to 52 per deputy from 1 st October 2015, until September 30 , 201615 . This limitation is perpetuated 16 . While most of the written questions are personal, some of them are suggested by different interest groups 16 . According to the regulations of the National Assembly in force in 2018, the responses of ministers must be published "within two months" of their publication. The group presidents of the Palais Bourbon then have the “faculty” to report to the Official Journal some of the unanswered questions to which the executive must then respond “within ten days” . However at1 st March 2018, the response rate was only 39% for senators and 42% for deputies 17 . Oral questions are asked directly during the session, a distinction is made between “oral questions without debate N 1  ”, “  questions to the government  ” created in 1974 18 (broadcast live on France 3 since 1982 and on LCP since October 2017) and “Questions to a minister” 13 . Other prerogatives  The President of the Republic can have a message read which does not give rise to any debate and, since the modification of the Constitution of 2008 , can speak before the Parliament meeting in congress C 18 . The Parliament can dismiss the President of the Republic in the event of "breach of his duties manifestly incompatible with the exercise of his mandate". It is then constituted in High Court C 19 . Each chamber elects, after each general or partial renewal, six of the fifteen judges of the Court of Justice of the Republic , responsible for judging offenses committed by members of the Government during the exercise of their functions C 20 . Parliament votes to revise the Constitution . In this case, unlike ordinary laws, the text must be voted on in identical terms by the two assemblies. The revision is then approved by referendum or, for bills only, by a vote of parliamentarians meeting in Congress . In this case the text must meet the majority of three fifths of the votes cast C 21 . Each assembly can vote on resolutions on the modification of its own regulations, these must be submitted to the Constitutional Council C 6 . Dissolution  Main article: Parliamentary dissolution (France) . The President of the Republic can dissolve the National Assembly. This cannot be done more than once a year C 22 . It is not a measure to the France and many heads of state of Western democracy also have this right (and in Germany the Federal President Horst Köhler dissolved the Bundestag onJuly 21, 2005at the request of Chancellor Gerhard Schröder ). A dissolution automatically entails the holding of legislative elections which are then said to be "early". Since 1958 and the 1 st July 2016 there were five dissolutions. Charles de Gaulle dissolved the Assembly for the first time onOctober 10, 1962, after the adoption of a motion of censure against the Georges Pompidou government . The president prefers to immediately rename Georges Pompidou and dissolves the Assembly in order to have this conflict settled by the voters. This dissolution is followed by legislative elections which mark the victory of the Gaullists of the UNR-UDT and their independent Republican allies . He uses this right a second time, theMay 30, 1968, to resolve the crisis of May 68 . This dissolution led to early legislative elections marked by a strong victory for the Gaullists who alone obtained the absolute majority (293 elected out of 487 for the UDR ). François Mitterrand dissolves the Assembly onMay 22, 1981, after his victory in the presidential election and to have a majority in the Assembly, which he will largely obtain in the legislative elections (the Socialist Party alone obtaining the absolute majority with 266 deputies out of 491). He does the sameMay 14, 1988, after his re-election and for the same reason, the victory of the left in the legislative elections was strong, but less than in 1981 (275 elected Socialists out of 575, allied to 41 elected from the Union du Center ). Jacques Chirac dissolved the Assembly onApril 21, 1997, in order to anticipate legislative elections scheduled for a year later. Contrary to his wishes, it leads to the victory of the Socialists and their allies of the Plural Majority in the early legislative elections and the appointment of the Lionel Jospin government . Organization of sessions and meetings  Related article: Conference of Presidents of the National Assembly . Chamber of the National Assembly during the passage of a law in 2009. Sessions  The periods of debates taking place in the hemicycle (which only represent part of a deputy's work), called parliamentary sessions , exist under three categories: the ordinary session being held from October to June C 23 . There were originally two ordinary sessions per year of three months each (respectively from October 2 to December 20 and from April 2 to June 30 , thus providing MPs with "winter" and "summer" holidays). This situation was strongly criticized by the former president of the Assembly Philippe Séguin who sponsored a reform in 1995. which then establishes a single annual session of at least 120 session days per year being established between the first working day of October and the last working day of June, each assembly then deciding as it sees fit on the weeks of session as well that of his meeting days and times. the extraordinary session: outside the ordinary session, the Parliament can be convened in extraordinary session by decree of the President of the Republic and at the request of the Prime Minister or of the majority of the deputies, for twelve days at most C 24 . In recent years it was common to have an extraordinary session in July and September 19 . full meetings: the Assembly meets automatically after dissolution (the second Thursday following the election of the new Assembly and for 15 days if the ordinary session is not open then) C 22 , during the application of the special powers of the Head of State C 25 or simply to hear an official message read from the President of the Republic C 18 . Calendar  The calendar is organized in cycles of four weeks, as follows C 26  : two weeks devoted to the examination of government texts, a week devoted to the examination of the texts proposed by the deputies with a day reserved for the texts of a minority or opposition group, one week of control. Agenda  The public attends the sessions from the stands (photo: 2013). The agenda is set by the Conference of Presidents of the National Assembly . The debates are organized in “sessions”. Over a week, the sessions are generally held as follows  : 20 Tuesday from 9.30 a.m. to 1 p.m., for oral questions without debate during the control weeks, from 3 p.m. to 8 p.m. (the 3 p.m. to 5 p.m. period is reserved for questions to the government), from 9:30 p.m. to midnight at the latest; Wednesday from 3 p.m. to 8 p.m., from 9:30 p.m. to midnight at the latest; Thursday from 9 a.m. to 1 p.m., from 3 p.m. to 8 p.m., from 9:30 p.m. to midnight at the latest. When circumstances so require, the Government may request the opening of additional sitting days on Monday and Friday, days traditionally reserved for work in constituencies. In the case of Monday, the meeting opens at 4 p.m. at the earliest. The meeting service prepares the agenda, in close collaboration with the Ministry of Relations with Parliament . The exchanges are permanent, in order to adapt, for example, the ministerial agenda to the parliamentary debate 21 . Public sessions  The sessions of the National Assembly are public. It can sit in camera C 27 (which never happened under the V th Republic 22 ). It is possible to attend the debates from seats located above the hemicycle, it is necessary to have an invitation from a deputy 23 . They can also be watched in streaming on the Assembly's website or on the Parliamentary Channel . The reports are published in the Official Journal and on the website of the National Assembly. Position players  Each deputy is assigned a place in hemicycle 24 . They are grouped together by political group, and more generally by “  left  ” and “  right  ” from the point of view of the speaker's platform, itself located under the “perch” (commonly referred to as the location of the president of the country). 'Assembly). During the meeting, the deputies have nevertheless the right to move and sit in a place other than theirs (subject of course that it is not occupied by its owner). Members of the government have access to the C 28 Assembly to defend their texts and their policies. They are installed on the lowest benches of the hemicycle. The rapporteur of a text and the minister concerned are accompanied respectively by administrators and government commissioners, who are seated on the bench immediately behind them, but who cannot intervene in the debate. The public attends the sessions from the stands, which may, in whole or in part, be reserved for the press. In addition, the assistants of the session chairman, political advisers of groups and ministers and government commissioners can also follow the debates, either in the three places next to each entrance to the hemicycle, or on the balustrades above. of each entrance, called "puppets". Finally, all around the "perch" and near the entrances are places for certain administrators of the National Assembly and the ushers. The "cemetery"  A platform, nicknamed "cemetery" , is specially reserved for former deputies 25 , 26 . Presidency  The chairman of the session is assisted in the debates by the secretary general of the presidency of the National Assembly, who can be replaced by the director general of legislative services or the director of the session service. During legislative debates, it updates in real time the "president's file" according to the abandonment or the addition of amendments at the last minute. He also advises the Chairman of the meeting in the event of a meeting incident or on an unusual procedural matter. He can sit on a small red seat nicknamed “mercy” right next to the president's seat (“perch”) to advise him 21 . Elections of Deputies  Related articles: French Deputy and Number of parliamentarians under the Fifth Republic . Since 1958, the number of deputies has varied between 482 and 579. It has been set at 577 since the 1986 N 2 elections  ; since the Constitutional Law of July 23, 2008 , this number is the limit set by the Constitution C 1 . Eligibility conditions  The procedures for electing deputies are set out in the Electoral Code . This section has been applicable since the 2012 elections . The essential conditions to stand for election are to hold French nationality , and to be at least 18 years old N 3  ; in addition: "No one can be elected if he does not justify having satisfied the obligations imposed by the code of the national service" 27  ; adults under tutorship or curatorship are ineligible LO 2 . The mandate of deputy cannot be combined with that of senator , European deputy , member of the Government , of the Constitutional Council , of the Economic, Social and Environmental Council LO 3 . The mandate of deputy is incompatible with the function of soldier, and with the exercise of more than one of the following mandates: regional councilor, adviser to the Corsican Assembly , general councilor, councilor of Paris, municipal councilor of a commune of at least 3,500 LO 4 inhabitants  ; the defender of rights and the general comptroller of places of deprivation of liberty are ineligible for the duration of their functions LO 5  ; the Prefects are ineligible France in any constituency included in whole or part within the jurisdiction in which they hold or have held office for less than three years from the election date LO 6 (non-exhaustive list). From the first renewal of the National Assembly following March 31, 2017, the mandate of deputy is incompatible with local executive functions ( mayors , presidents of regional or departmental councils, etc.) LO 7 Organization of elections  Main articles: French electoral procedures , Legislative elections in France , Legislative constituencies (France) , List of legislative constituencies in France and Legislative constituencies of French people living outside France . Deputies are elected by direct universal suffrage with a two-round first past the post . Each department is divided into several constituencies which have an average of 105,600 inhabitants. The 1986 electoral law specifies that the differences in population between constituencies must in no case result in a constituency exceeding by more than 20% the average population of the constituencies of the department 28 . The organic law of July 10, 1985had introduced the multi-member proportional vote to the highest average within the framework of the department. In this context, it was necessary to obtain at least 5% of the votes to have an elected representative. The legislative elections of 1986 gave France a new majority which restored the majority ballot. But the idea of ​​introducing a dose of proportionality within the framework of a mixed system often returns to the forefront of the political scene. Pursuant to the constitutional law of July 23, 2008 which established the representation of French people living outside France in the National Assembly and the redistribution of constituencies in 2010 , the seats have been distributed as follows, since the 2012 elections: 556 for the departments; 10 for overseas communities  ; 11 for the election of deputies representing the French living outside France . Each candidate presents himself with a substitute who takes his place in the event of death or incompatibility of function. To be elected in the first round, a candidate must obtain an absolute majority of the votes cast and a number of votes equal to a quarter of the number of registered voters 29 . A candidate can stand in the second round if he has obtained in the first round a vote of 12.5% ​​of the registered voters. In the event that only one candidate fulfills these conditions, the candidate having obtained after this one the greatest number of votes in the first round may remain in the second. In the event that no candidate fulfills these conditions, the two candidates having obtained the greatest number of votes in the first round may remain in the second 29 . In the second round, the relative majority is enough to be elected. In the event of a tie, the oldest is declared elected 29 . Replacement of Deputies  A deputy whose seat becomes vacant due to death, acceptance of the functions of member of the Government, of the Constitutional Council or of Defender of Rights or of extension beyond the six-month period of a temporary mission entrusted by the Government is replaced until the renewal of the National Assembly by its substitute LO 8 . In the event of cancellation of the electoral operations of a constituency, in cases of vacancy other than those mentioned above, by-elections are carried out within three months. However, no by-election is held in the twelve months preceding the expiration of the powers of the National Assembly LO 9 . Gender and Women's Rights  Related articles: Women in the French National Assembly and Law to promote equal access of women and men to electoral mandates and elective functions . The history of women and of the National Assembly in France relates to the emancipation of women in French legislative political life and, since 1945 , their participation in the elections of the National Assembly, through the vote and the arrival of some to the deputation. If the Provisional Consultative Assembly sitting in Algiers from November 3 , 1943 to July 25 , 1944includes only one woman, Marthe Simard ( Lucie Aubrac , appointed but unable to travel to Algeria , will be replaced by her husband Raymond Aubrac ), in that of Paris, November 7 , 1944 to August 3 , 1945, sit 16 women among the delegates. A few months later, the legislative elections of October 21 , 1945Who install a constituent assembly , are open to women and soldiers, and allow 33 women to enter for the first time in history in the National Assembly: 17 are communists , 6 Socialists , 9 belong to the MRP 's general de Gaulle and one comes from the short-lived Republican Party for Freedom . In 1945, they represented 5.6% of deputies, saw their proportion drop to 1.4% in 1958 and then drop from 7.1% in 1981 to 10.9% in 1997 and 18.5% in 2007. Since the law ofJune 6, 2000on parity , public aid to political organizations is reduced as the gap between the number of candidates of each sex increases. The number of women among the deputies then increased, without reaching parity (10.9% in 1997; 12.3% in 2002 and 18.5% in 2007) 30 . After the legislative elections of 2012 , there are 155 deputies or 26.9% 31 . The legislative elections of 11 and 18 June 2017 made it possible to beat the record for women in the Assembly with 223 deputies out of 577, i.e. 38.65% of the national representation 32 . Organization  Office  Main article: Office of the French National Assembly . The Office of the National Assembly is the highest collegial authority organizing it. It exercises general competence over the organization and internal functioning of the lower house and has twenty-two members, including the president who is elected for the entire legislature. The other members of the bureau (vice-presidents, quaestors and secretaries) are elected at the start of each legislature, during the sitting following the election of the President and renewed at each opening of an ordinary session, with the exception of the one preceding the renewal of the Assembly. During the opening session of the legislature which sees the election of the president and the first office, an “age office” is set up, the president of which is the oldest member of the deputies.assisted by the six youngest deputies who then act as secretaries. This Age Bureau is only in function to proceed with the election of the President of the Assembly. Even if no debate can take place under the chairmanship of the oldest member, it has been customary since 1876 for the latter to address his colleagues in a speech during which he shares some thoughts inspired by his experience of parliamentary life 33 . The first dean to make this speech is François-Vincent Raspail who delivers a harangue 34 . President of the National Assembly  Main article: List of presidents of the French National Assembly and assimilated chambers . Jacques Chaban-Delmas is President of the National Assembly on several occasions for a cumulative period of fifteen years. Richard Ferrand , President of the National Assembly since September 2018. The President of the National Assembly has a role of directing debates and organizing the work of the Assembly. He is the fourth state figure in the order of precedence during protocol ceremonies, behind the President of the Republic , the Prime Minister and finally the President of the Senate 35 . In the legislative procedure, the president opens and closes the session, leads the debates and enforces the rules. He may be replaced in these functions by one of the vice-presidents. Since the constitutional reform of 2008, he can submit a bill for the opinion of the Council of State C 29 , or else ask, jointly to the President of the Senate, to call for the meeting of a joint committee, in the case of a bill C 29 . He also ensures that procedures are followed for the other activities of the Assembly 36 . It also has important constitutional prerogatives: it appoints three of the nine members of the Constitutional Council and two of the six external personalities of the Superior Council of the Judiciary (on a par with the President of the Republic and the President of the Senate ) C 30 , C 31  ; it must be consulted by the President of the Republic before the latter exercises certain of his constitutional powers (such as dissolution or concerning full powers in times of crisis) C 32. He can also at any time seize the Constitutional Council to verify the constitutionality of a law before its promulgation or of an international commitment. It can also decide, with the Bureau, to reform the regulations and the mode of operation of the National Assembly 36 . When these bodies are brought together, he presides over the Congress of Parliament and the High Court of Justice 36 . The President of the National Assembly is elected at the start of the legislature for its duration C 33 . The first session is chaired by the oldest member who organizes the election of the president from among the deputies. The election is made by secret ballot from the tribune of the hemicycle. To be elected, a deputy must have an absolute majority in the first two rounds, or a relative majority in the third. If there is still a tie, the oldest candidate is elected 36 . Although the information is not made public, the amount of the compensation of the President of the National Assembly is known and amounts to approximately € 21,000  , significantly higher than that of deputies 37 . Vice-Presidents  The six vice-presidents of the National Assembly, whose distribution is the subject of a consensus between the different political groups which nominate their candidates beforehand, essentially aim to replace the president of the National Assembly at the perch if this one is prevented, with a successive order of replacement going from the first to the sixth vice-president. In addition, each vice-president heads one of the six delegations in which the members of the bureau are distributed to prepare certain decisions. There are currently delegations responsible for: the application of the statute of the deputy, communication, international activities, questions concerning parliamentary offices, to examine the admissibility of legislative proposals , study groups. Finally, along with the President of the National Assembly, the chairmen of the committees and the chairmen of the political groups, they form part of the Conference of Presidents which is called upon to give its opinion on the priority working agenda set by the government. . Quaestors  Main article: Quaestor (parliament) . By virtue of article 10-2 of the regulations of the National Assembly, the election of the members of the Bureau "takes place by endeavoring to reproduce within the Bureau the political configuration of the Assembly". Thus, among the three quaestors of the National Assembly, one of them comes from the opposition. The Quaestors exercise extensive powers in financial, accounting and administrative matters within the framework of the management autonomy of the National Assembly. The three Quaestors “are responsible for financial and administrative services. No new expenditure may be incurred without their prior notice ” 38 . The services for which they are responsible cannot therefore directly incur any expenditure. Secretaries  The college of twelve secretaries, also having a pluralist constitution, assists the president in public session, notes the votes while checking their validity and that of the voting delegations, and the results of the ballots which are then announced by the president. Commissions  Standing Legislative Committees  There are at most eight standing committees in each assembly. They are mainly responsible for discussing and voting on texts before plenary sessions. It is possible, at the request of the Government, to create a special commission for a specific text C 34 . A special or permanent committee may convene any person whose hearing it considers necessary Ord58 2 . The constitutional law of 23 July 2008 provides that the competent standing committee of each assembly must rule on certain appointments of the President of the Republic, such as those of members of the Constitutional Council C 35 , 39 . Likewise, appointments to the Constitutional Council made by the president of each chamber are subject to the sole opinion of the competent committee of the assembly concerned C 36 . Since the entry into force of the organic law relating to finance laws , the finance commission is responsible for verifying the state budget as well as its use LO 10 . The standing committees have an important role in terms of control: they can carry out hearings and set up fact-finding missions. They can monitor, through reports, the application of laws by the Government. The committees very frequently hear members of the Government, including the Prime Minister, European Commissioners, experts, representatives of socio-professional circles or any other personality. During the 14th legislature, 2,837 hearings were organized by the standing and special committees. Save exceptions, these hearings are public 40 . At October 28, 2020, the eight standing committees are 41  : Commission President Cultural Affairs and Education Commission Bruno Studer ( The Republic on the Move ) Economic Affairs Commission Roland Lescure ( The Republic on the Move ) Foreign Affairs Committee Jean-Louis Bourlanges ( Democratic Movement ) Social Affairs Commission Fadila Khattabi ( The Republic on the Move ) National Defense and Armed Forces Commission Françoise Dumas ( The Republic on the Move ) Commission for Sustainable Development and Regional Planning Laurence Maillart-Méhaignerie ( The Republic on the march ) Finance, General Economy and Budgetary Control Committee Éric Woerth ( The Republicans ) Commission for Constitutional Laws, Legislation and General Administration of the Republic Yaël Braun-Pivet ( The Republic on the Move ) Commissions of Inquiry  Main article: Parliamentary Commission of Inquiry in France . Each assembly can create a parliamentary commission of inquiry by voting on a resolution. They are formed to collect information either on specific facts or on the management of public services or national enterprises, with a view to submitting their conclusions to the assembly which created them. A commission of inquiry cannot be created on facts which have given rise to legal proceedings and as long as these proceedings are in progress. If a commission has already been created, its mission ends as soon as a judicial investigation is opened relating to the facts on which it is responsible for investigating. The members of the committees of inquiry are appointed in such a way as to ensure a proportional representation of the political groups. Committees of inquiry are of a temporary nature. Their mission ends with the submission of their report and, at the latest, at the expiration of a period of six months from the date of the adoption of the resolution which created them. They cannot be reconstituted with the same object before the expiration of a period of twelve months from the end of their mission.C 37 , Ord58 3 . Other instances  Since the constitutional law of July 23, 2008 , the Government must submit to the National Assembly and to the Senate, as soon as they are transmitted to the Council of the European Union , the draft European legislative acts and other draft or proposed legal acts. the European Union  ; a special committee is responsible for European affairs in each assembly C 38 , Ord58 4 . The parliamentary office for the evaluation of scientific and technological choices is made up of eighteen deputies and eighteen senators. Its mission is to inform Parliament of the consequences of scientific and technological choices in order, in particular, to inform its Ord58 5 decisions . There is a parliamentary intelligence delegation Ord58 6 , common to the National Assembly and the Senate; and, in each assembly, a parliamentary delegation for women's rights and equal opportunities between men and women Ord58 7 and a parliamentary delegation overseas Ord58 8, as well as a delegation to local authorities and decentralization since 2009 to the Senate and 2017 to the Assembly 42 43 . The Friendship Groups of the National Assembly bring together members of Parliament who have a particular interest in a foreign country. Their role is interparliamentary cooperation, international representation of the National Assembly and diplomacy 44 . There are also study groups, which are “bodies open to all deputies and set up to study and follow specific questions, whether of a political, economic, social or international nature. These bodies do not intervene directly in the legislative procedure. Their mission is to ensure a legal and technical watch on questions too specialized to be the object of an examination followed by the standing committees (problematic, sector of activity…). Study groups are also the place for irreplaceable discussions and exchanges between deputies of all stripes. According to the website of the National Assembly. Also according to this site, 105 study groups have been approved since the beginning of the 14th century.legislature, which is the current legislature (2017-2022) 45 . The parliamentary clubs , often informal, allow the meeting of parliamentarians and representatives of interests 46 . Political groups  According to the regulations of the National Assembly, the "deputies can regroup by political affinities" in parliamentary groups . They must contain at least 15 members (since 2009 , this number was 20 between 1988 and 2009, and 30 previously). The political group must present at the opening of the legislature to the President of the National Assembly a political declaration signed by its members. In addition to the full members of the group, who are generally members of the same party ( PS , LR , EELV , etc.), some deputies can "relate" to a group: they are not then included in the quota. minimum of 15 required for group formation. These are usually members from small parties or without labels close to the tendency of the main political movement behind the formation of the group. The groups decide, with the President of the National Assembly, the areas of the Chamber where they will sit. They are then the sole judges of how to distribute their members and relatives within this zone. They have their own organization and their own rules of procedure, elect from among themselves a president who will represent them within the Conference of Presidents and who will have several important prerogatives (such as the request or on the contrary the opposition to the creation of a special committee, the right to obtain a suspension of the session to convene the group, to request the vote by public ballot, to call in session for the verification of the quorum on the occasion of a vote, to prepare the order of monthly parliamentary day specific to their group, to propose or oppose the initiation of simplified engagement procedures, or even the "right of drawing" which allows them to obtain once a year the examination in public session of a resolution proposing the creation of a commission of inquiry, etc.) . Each group, according to its numerical weight within the Assembly, appoints its representatives within the Bureau and the various committees. In addition, depending on their size, they have their own financial subsidy and have offices and rooms to meet. designates its representatives within the Bureau and the various committees. In addition, depending on their size, they have their own financial subsidy and have offices and rooms to meet. designates its representatives within the Bureau and the various committees. In addition, depending on their size, they have their own financial subsidy and have offices and rooms to meet. The record for the number of political groups was reached in May 2020 with the creation of a ninth and a tenth group. Majorities and presidency since 1958  Main articles: Composition of the French National Assembly by legislature and List of Presidents of the National Assembly . Composition and presidency of the French National Assembly by legislature N 4 Legislature Elections Composition Presidency of the Assembly I re 1958 National Assembly Ie legislature.svg( list of deputies ) Jacques Chaban-Delmas II e 1962 National Assembly 2nd legislature.svg( list of deputies ) This assembly was elected after the dissolution which followed a motion of censure in the context of the referendum on the election by direct universal suffrage of the President of the Republic . Jacques Chaban-Delmas III e 1967 National Assembly 3rd legislature.svg( list of deputies ) Jacques Chaban-Delmas IV e 1968 French National Assembly resulting from the elections of June 1968.png( list of deputies ) This assembly was elected after the dissolution following the events of May 68 . Jacques Chaban-Delmas , then Achille Peretti V e 1973 National Assembly 5th legislature.png( list of deputies ) Edgar Faure VI e 1978 National Assembly VIth legislature.png( list of deputies ) Jacques Chaban-Delmas VII th nineteen eighty one National Assembly VIIth legislature.png( list of deputies ) François Mitterrand, elected president, dissolved the 1978 Assembly to have a majority. Louis Mermaz VIII th 1986 Assembly 1986.svg( list of deputies ) The presidential majority loses the elections resulting in the first cohabitation. It is the only legislature elected by proportional representation. Jacques Chaban-Delmas IX th 1988 National Assembly IXth legislature.png( list of deputies ) François Mitterrand, re-elected president, dissolved the 1986 Assembly to have a majority. Laurent Fabius , then Henri Emmanuelli X e 1993 National Assembly, 1993 Elections.svg( list of deputies ) The presidential majority loses the elections resulting in the second cohabitation. The new majority is the largest in all of French parliamentary history, left and right combined Philippe Seguin XI th 1997 1997 French National Assembly.svg( list of deputies ) Jacques Chirac dissolves the Assembly, but the plural left wins the elections, resulting in the third cohabitation. Laurent Fabius , then Raymond Forni XII th 2002 XII legislature.svg( list of deputies ) Jean-Louis Debré , then Patrick Ollier XIII th 2007 Svgfiles 2020-02-10-16-23-43-662003-11138313671843369614.svg( list of deputies ) Bernard accoyer XIV th 2012 National Assembly 15 legislature groups June 2012.svg( list of deputies ) Claude bartolone XV th 2017 Diagram national assembly 2017.svg( list of deputies ) François de Rugy , then Richard Ferrand Details of office, political groups, standing committees and delegations  For the session started in 2018, the bureau is made up of the following 47 deputies  : Richard Ferrand , president Annie Genevard , vice-president B 1 Marc Le Fur , vice-president B 2 David Habib , vice-president Sylvain Waserman , vice-president B 3 Hugues Renson , vice-president B 4 Laëtitia Saint-Paul , vice-president Florian Bachelier , quaestor Laurianne Rossi , quaestor Eric Ciotti , quaestor Lénaïck Adam , secretary Ramlati Ali , secretary Danielle Brulebois , secretary Luc Carvounas , secretary Lionel Causse , secretary Alexis Corbière , secretary Laurence Dumont , secretary Marie Guévenoux , secretary Annaïg Le Meur , secretary Sophie Mette , secretary Gabriel Serville , secretary Guillaume Vuilletet , secretary President of the delegation of the office in charge of the application of the statute of the deputy Chairman of the delegation of the office responsible for examining the admissibility of bills Chairman of the office delegation responsible for interest representatives and study groups Chairman of the delegation of the office in charge of communication and the press At July 21, 2021, Members are divided into political groups as follows 48  : Group Members Related Members Total President The Republic on the march 266 4 270 Christophe Castaner The Republicans 97 8 105 Damien Abad Democratic Movement and Allies 50 8 58 Patrick Mignola Socialists and allies 26 3 29 Valerie Rabault Act together 22 0 22 Olivier Becht UDI and self-employed 19 0 19 Jean-Christophe Lagarde Freedoms and territories 16 1 17 Bertrand pancher France rebellious 17 0 17 Jean-Luc Mélenchon Democratic and Republican left 16 0 16 André Chassaigne Non-registered 22 - Vacant seats 2 In February 2020, the six parliamentary delegations, committee and office are 49  : Delegation President Delegation for women's rights and equal opportunities between men and women Marie-Pierre Rixain Public policy evaluation and control committee Richard Ferrand Delegation overseas Olivier Serva Parliamentary intelligence delegation MP Françoise Dumas ( Philippe Bas , senator and first vice-president) Parliamentary Office for the Evaluation of Scientific and Technological Choices Deputy Cédric Villani ( Gérard Longuet , senator and first vice-president) Delegation to local authorities and decentralization Jean-René Cazeneuve Sycamore database  Since 2007, the Sycomore database on the National Assembly website has made it possible to search for information on French deputies since the Revolution 50 . Administration  Officials  Claude Bartolone chairs a session, he is assisted by Corinne Luquiens , Secretary General of the Assembly and of the Presidency, in the background (photo: 2013). The officials of the National Assembly have a specific statute in application of the principle of the separation of powers 51 . Main article: List of secretaries general of the National Assembly . The Secretary General of the Assembly and of the Presidency (currently Michel Moreau since 2016) helps the President of the Assembly during the session. He is responsible for legislative services 52 , 53  : the general secretariat of the Presidency; the session ; the six functional poles, responsible in particular for the secretariat of the commissions. legal affairs, culture and social issues, economics and scientific evaluation, public finances, European affairs, international and defense affairs, multimedia communication and information; the library and archives; the report of the meeting; committee reports. The Secretary General of the Quaestor is responsible to the three Quaestors for the proper functioning of the five administrative services, which are: general administration and security; parliamentary logistics; budget, financial control and markets; financial and social management; real estate affairs and heritage. The two general secretaries are jointly responsible for the two common services, which are: human resources ; information systems. Civil servants, recruited through very selective competitive examinations, are divided into five generalist bodies (administrators, deputy administrators, administrative secretaries, service secretaries and agents) whose members are intended to change service regularly for internal mobility, and twenty-one specialized corps (such as report writers, professional workers, wardens, etc.). Other people work in the Assembly without being deputies or civil servants: the secretariats of political groups 54 and parliamentary assistants 55 . Budget  The budgets of the National Assembly and the Senate are decided by a committee made up of the quaestors of the two chambers and chaired by a member of the Court of Auditors 56 . The Assembly's budget is part of the “public authorities” mission , the appropriations for 2010 are 533,910,000 euros 57 . Since 1993, a simplified summary drafted by the chairman of the audit committee has been published and disseminated. The full budget has been available online on the Internet 58 since 2013 59 . According to Bernard Roman, quaestor in charge of controlling the finances of the Palais Bourbon, officials of the National Assembly earned an average of 8,000 euros per month in 2015 60 . In 2019, the main section of the budget, operating expenses, amounted to 583,794,378 euros, and broken down mainly into parliamentary expenses (323,179,092 euros, or approximately 55% of the budget), personnel expenses (187,477,289 euros , or about 32% of the budget) and current expenditure (supplies, maintenance, taxes, services: 41,803,042, or about 7% of the budget) 61 . Assemblée nationale est l'institution française qui forme, avec le Sénat, le Parlement de la Cinquième République. Son rôle est de débattre, de proposer, d’amender et de voter les lois, et de contrôler l'action du Gouvernement. À la différence du Sénat, elle a le pouvoir de forcer la démission du gouvernement par le vote d'une motion de censure. Elle siège au palais Bourbon à Paris. Depuis 1986, l’Assemblée nationale compte 577 membres, appelés députés, élus au suffrage universel direct au scrutin uninominal majoritaire à deux tours pour une durée de cinq ans. Depuis le début de la XVe législature en 2017, le groupe majoritaire est celui de La République en marche. La présidence de l'Assemblée nationale est assurée par Richard Ferrand depuis septembre 2018. Sommaire 1 Histoire 2 Emplacement 3 Rôle 3.1 Discussion et vote de la loi 3.2 Contrôle de l'action du Gouvernement 3.2.1 Vote de confiance 3.2.2 Motion de censure 3.2.3 Engagement de responsabilité sur un texte 3.2.4 Autres moyens de contrôle 3.2.5 Questions 3.3 Autres prérogatives 4 Dissolution 5 Organisation des sessions et des séances 5.1 Sessions 5.2 Calendrier 5.3 Ordre du jour 5.4 Des séances publiques 5.5 Position des acteurs 5.5.1 Le « cimetière » 5.6 Présidence 6 Élections des députés 6.1 Conditions d'éligibilité 6.2 Organisation des élections 6.3 Remplacement des députés 6.4 Parité et droits des femmes 7 Organisation 7.1 Bureau 7.1.1 Président de l'Assemblée nationale 7.1.2 Vice-présidents 7.1.3 Questeurs 7.1.4 Secrétaires 7.2 Commissions 7.2.1 Commissions législatives permanentes 7.2.2 Commissions d'enquête 7.2.3 Autres instances 7.3 Groupes politiques 7.4 Majorités et présidence depuis 1958 7.5 Détails du bureau, des groupes politiques, des commissions permanentes et délégations 7.6 Base de données Sycomore 8 Administration 8.1 Fonctionnaires 8.2 Budget 9 Notes et références 9.1 Notes 9.2 Constitution de 1958 9.3 Lois organiques 9.4 Ordonnance relative au fonctionnement des assemblées parlementaires 9.5 Autres références 10 Voir aussi 10.1 Bibliographie 10.2 Articles connexes 10.3 Liens externes Histoire Article connexe : Histoire des institutions françaises. Le serment du Jeu de paume est considéré comme le début de l’histoire parlementaire française. L'histoire de la représentation nationale depuis deux siècles est étroitement liée à celle du principe démocratique et du chemin accidenté qu'elle a dû parcourir avant de trouver dans les institutions françaises la consécration qui est sienne aujourd'hui. Si les Français ont périodiquement élu des représentants depuis 1789, le mode de désignation et les pouvoirs de ces mandataires ont considérablement varié selon les époques, les périodes d'effacement de l’institution parlementaire coïncidant généralement avec un recul des libertés publiques. À cet égard, les dénominations ne sont pas innocentes. Celle d'Assemblée nationale, choisie dans la ferveur de 1789, ne réapparaît — si l’on excepte la brève parenthèse de 1848 — qu'en 1946. Se succèdent entre-temps des appellations différentes (« Conseil des Cinq-Cents » institué par la Constitution de l'an III en août 1795, « Chambre des députés des départements », « Chambre des représentants », « Corps législatif », « Chambres des députés », etc.). Emplacement Article connexe : Palais Bourbon. Le palais Bourbon vue depuis la Seine. L’Assemblée nationale siège au Palais BourbonOrd58 1 dans le 7e arrondissement de Paris sur la rive gauche de la Seine, dans un bâtiment qui accueille depuis 1799 toutes les chambres basses du Parlement français. Sa façade monumentale, légèrement décalée par rapport à l’axe du reste du bâtiment, donne sur le célèbre quai d'Orsay (l’Assemblée nationale est d'ailleurs voisine du ministère des Affaires étrangères et est alignée sur le pont de la Concorde). Si l’entrée principale est le no 126 de la rue de l’Université, on y accède aussi par le quai d’Orsay (33-35) et par la rue Aristide-Briand. L’hôtel de Lassay, siège de la présidence et résidence officielle du président de l'Assemblée nationale, est également affecté au palais BourbonOrd58 1. L'ensemble des immeubles affectés à l'Assemblée nationale couvrent une surface au sol de 158 000 m2 pour près de 9 500 locaux. Outre le Palais Bourbon, il se compose de quatre autres immeubles réservés aux bureaux des députés et de leurs collaborateurs1 : un de sept étages construit en 1974, situé de l’autre côté de la rue de l’Université, au 101, et relié au palais Bourbon par un passage souterrain, un deuxième situé au 233 boulevard Saint-Germain (acquis en 1986), un troisième acheté en 2002, situé 3 rue Aristide-Briand (ancien siège du RPR), acheté en 2016 alors qu'il hébergeait des cabinets ministériels, l'Hôtel de Broglie doit être rénové pour remplacer la location de bureaux au 3 rue Aristide-Briand2. Certains de ces bâtiments abritent également les services nécessaires au fonctionnement de l'Assemblée nationale. Parmi ces services, on compte notamment le service informatique qui assure le bon fonctionnement du matériel utilisé par les acteurs législatifs, mais aussi l'ensemble des plateformes numériques proposées directement aux députés ou aux internautes. D'autres services comme la comptabilité, les ressources humaines ou l'administration se retrouvent également logés dans ces locaux. Enfin une boutique officielle se situe au 7 rue Aristide-Briand. Dans une note publiée sur le site de la fondation Jean-Jaurès et rendue publique en novembre 2017, le député LREM Adrien Taquet suggère de décentraliser l'Assemblée nationale dans une grande ville de province comme Marseille, dans une volonté de rapprochement symbolique des élus vers les citoyens, tout en critiquant des locaux du xixe siècle devenus inadaptés3. Rôle Article connexe : Constitution française du 4 octobre 1958. L’Assemblée nationale est une institution de la Ve République et forme, avec le Sénat une des chambres du Parlement français. À ce titre, elle vote la loi, contrôle l’action du gouvernement et évalue les politiques publiquesC 1. Ses pouvoirs sont fixés par la Constitution. L’Assemblée nationale parmi les institutions de la Ve République. Les institutions de la Cinquième République, mises en place en 1958, correspondent aux idées du général de Gaulle, telles qu'il les avait exposées dès 1946. Jusqu'en 1962, les pouvoirs publics doivent résoudre la crise algérienne. Puis, une deuxième phase s'engage, sur le plan institutionnel, avec l’élection du président de la République au suffrage universel direct et l’apparition d'une majorité homogène à l’Assemblée nationale, et dans le domaine de la politique extérieure. La période de forte croissance économique se poursuit jusqu'en 1973. La recomposition de la majorité après les élections présidentielles de 1974, puis les alternances politiques de 1981 (élections présidentielles, puis élections législatives après dissolution de l’Assemblée nationale), 1986 (élections législatives), 1988 (élections présidentielles, puis élections législatives après dissolution de l’Assemblée nationale), 1993 (élections législatives, suivies des élections présidentielles en 1995), de 1997 (élections législatives, après dissolution de l’Assemblée nationale) de 2002 et de 2007 ont peu à peu modifié le fonctionnement des institutions. L'Assemblée nationale voit son rôle de plus en plus affirmé, tant du point de vue politique qu'en matière de contrôle du gouvernement, puis confirmé par la révision constitutionnelle de juillet 2008. Discussion et vote de la loi Article détaillé : Processus législatif en France. Le pupitre de vote d'un député. Un texte de loi peut avoir pour origine le Premier ministre (le texte est alors un « projet de loi ») ou un membre du Parlement (« proposition de loi »). Certaines lois sont obligatoirement d’origine gouvernementale, comme les lois de finances. Les projets de loi peuvent être soumis en premier à l’Assemblée nationale ou au Sénat, sauf dans le cas des lois de finances qui passent d’abord par l’Assemblée nationale, et des lois ayant pour principal objet l’organisation des collectivités territoriales ou les instances représentatives des Français établis hors de France qui sont soumis en premier lieu au SénatC 2. Pour un projet ou une proposition de loi ordinaire, le texte est d’abord soumis à l’une des commissions parlementaires permanentes, ou à une commission spéciale désignée à cet effetC 3. Au cours de la discussion en commission ou en séance, le Gouvernement et le Parlement peuvent ajouter, modifier ou supprimer des articles (« amender le texte »). Les amendements des parlementaires ne peuvent avoir pour conséquence une diminution des ressources publiques ou une création ou aggravation d’une charge publique. Le Gouvernement peut demander que l’assemblée se prononce en un seul vote sur tout ou partie du texte en discussion en ne retenant que les amendements proposés ou acceptés par le GouvernementC 4. Les projets ou propositions de loi sont examinés successivement par les deux assemblées jusqu’à ce que le texte soit identique. Après deux lectures par les deux chambres (ou une seule si le Gouvernement a décidé d’engager la procédure accélérée sans que les Conférences des présidents s’y soient conjointement opposées) sans accord, le Premier ministre ou, pour une proposition de loi, les présidents des deux assemblées agissant conjointement, peuvent convoquer une commission mixte paritaire (composée d’un nombre identique de sénateurs et de députés) chargée de proposer un texte de compromis. Celui-ci peut être soumis par le Gouvernement pour approbation aux deux assemblées. Aucun amendement n’est recevable sauf accord du Gouvernement. Si la commission mixte ne parvient pas à l’adoption d’un texte commun ou si ce texte n’est pas adopté par les deux assemblées, le Gouvernement peut, après une nouvelle lecture par l’Assemblée nationale et par le Sénat, demander à l’Assemblée nationale de statuer définitivement. En ce cas, l’Assemblée nationale peut reprendre soit le texte élaboré par la commission mixte, soit le dernier texte voté par elle, modifié le cas échéant par un ou plusieurs des amendements adoptés par le SénatC 5. Les lois peuvent être déférées au Conseil constitutionnel, avant leur promulgation, par le président de la République, le Premier ministre, le président de l’Assemblée nationale, le président du Sénat ou soixante députés ou soixante sénateursC 6. Le président de la République promulgue les lois. Il peut demander au Parlement une nouvelle délibération de la loi ou de certains de ses articles. Cette nouvelle délibération ne peut être refuséeC 7. Le président de la République, sur proposition du Gouvernement ou sur proposition conjointe des deux assemblées, peut soumettre au référendum tout projet de loi portant sur l’organisation des pouvoirs publics, sur des réformes relatives à la politique économique, sociale ou environnementale de la nation et aux services publics qui y concourent, ou tendant à autoriser la ratification d'un traité qui, sans être contraire à la Constitution, aurait des incidences sur le fonctionnement des institutions. Un référendum portant sur un objet mentionné précédemment peut être organisé à l’initiative d’un cinquième des membres du Parlement, soutenue par un dixième des électeurs inscrits sur les listes électoralesC 8. Contrôle de l'action du Gouvernement En tant que chambre du Parlement, l’Assemblée nationale contrôle la politique du gouvernement. Elle a plus de pouvoir en ce domaine que le Sénat, à travers les procédures de vote de confiance, de motion de censure, et d’engagement de responsabilité du gouvernement sur un texteC 9. Concrètement cela signifie que la majorité de l’Assemblée doit être en accord avec le Gouvernement. Vote de confiance Article détaillé : Article 49 de la Constitution de la Cinquième République française#La question de confiance (49 alinéa 1). Tout d’abord, le gouvernement peut demander le vote d’une question de confiance à l’Assemblée nationale (et à elle seule) portant sur un programme de gouvernement ou sur une déclaration de politique générale. Le vote de confiance a généralement lieu après la formation de chaque gouvernement après la présentation par le Premier ministre devant les députés de l’action gouvernementale qui sera menée. Il s’agit en quelque sorte de la confirmation parlementaire de la nomination d’un Premier ministre et de son gouvernement. Mais le chef du gouvernement peut demander également le vote d’une question de confiance afin de ressouder la majorité derrière lui et ainsi renforcer sa légitimité en période de crise de confiance : ce fut le cas notamment par Jacques Chaban-Delmas, Premier ministre de Georges Pompidou, le 23 juin 1972, pour court-circuiter un scandale lié à la publication de la feuille d’impôts du chef du gouvernement par le Canard enchaîné le 19 janvier de cette même année. S’il obtient largement cette confiance (368 voix contre 96), Jacques Chaban-Delmas démissionne tout de même quelques jours plus tard, le 5 juillet 19724,5. Depuis 1958, et au 1er juin 2017, il y eut 38 votes de confiance selon cette procédure6. Motion de censure Article détaillé : Article 49 de la Constitution de la Cinquième République française#La motion de censure (49 alinéa 2). L'entrée de l’Assemblée nationale donnant sur la rue de l’Université au no 126. Les députés peuvent déposer, dès que le quota nécessaire de signatures est réuni pour la soutenir (à savoir celles d’au moins un dixième des membres de l’Assemblée, soit aujourd’hui de 58 députés), une motion de censure, dite aussi « motion de censure spontanée ». Celle-ci doit être votée à la majorité absolue de l’ensemble des députés, soit au moins 289 voix « pour », qui sont seules comptabilisées, les abstentionnistes et les absents étant considérés comme rejetant la motion, ceci afin d’éviter le vote d’une motion à la « majorité simple » des seuls présents qui a été la cause de la chute de nombreux gouvernements lors des régimes républicains précédents. De plus, le vote doit avoir lieu 48 heures au moins après le dépôt de la motion et après débats, pour que les députés ne réagissent pas de manière spontanée et leur laisser le temps de la réflexion. Si le gouvernement est censuré, le Premier ministre doit présenter sa démission au président de la République, sans toutefois que celui-ci soit tenu de l’accepter. Responsable de la chute de nombreux gouvernements sous les IIIe et IVe Républiques, la motion de censure ne fut votée qu’une fois depuis 1958. Mais, même si elle n’a que très peu de chance d’aboutir, surtout lorsque la majorité en place est assez nette, la motion de censure est un outil particulièrement utilisé par l’opposition pour marquer son désaccord avec la politique générale du gouvernement ou contre des mesures phares de ce dernier. Depuis 1958, et au 1er juin 2017, une seule motion de censure fut votée, le 5 octobre 1962, contre le premier gouvernement Georges Pompidou pour protester contre le projet de révision constitutionnelle concernant l’élection du président de la République au suffrage universel direct. La démission du gouvernement fut toutefois refusée par Charles de Gaulle, président de la République qui décida alors de dissoudre l’Assemblée6. Engagement de responsabilité sur un texte Article détaillé : Article 49 de la Constitution de la Cinquième République française#L'engagement de responsabilité sur un texte (49 alinéa 3). Le Gouvernement peut faire adopter un projet de loi sans vote, sans débat et sans dépôt d’amendement portant directement sur ce texte. Cette disposition est surnommée « 49-3 » en référence à l’article de la Constitution l’ayant instaurée. Une motion de censure peut toutefois être déposée contre le gouvernement dans les 24 heures après l’appel au 49-3 (celle-ci est systématiquement alors déposée par l’opposition[réf. nécessaire]) : si celle-ci est votée, le texte est rejeté et le gouvernement, qui a engagé sa responsabilité sur ce projet de loi, chute. On parle alors également de « motion de censure provoquée ». Elle a été utilisé 88 fois depuis la création de la Ve République, en 19587. Depuis le 1er mars 2009 — date d’application des modifications de la Constitution de 2008 — cette disposition est limitée à la loi de finances, à la loi de financement de la sécurité sociale, et au plus à un texte par an. Ce pouvoir est particulièrement critiqué par les députés de l’opposition. Ils la jugent antidémocratique8. François Hollande, alors dans l'opposition, avait dénoncé cet article en 2006 lors de la loi sur l'égalité des chances9 : « Une violation des droits du Parlement, une brutalité, un déni de démocratie, une manière de freiner ou d’empêcher la mobilisation ». Son Premier ministre, Manuel Valls, l'utilisera pourtant en 2015 lors de la loi relative au travail, à la modernisation du dialogue social et à la sécurisation des parcours professionnels. Les partisans de cette disposition mettent en avant qu’il s’agit du meilleur moyen d’éviter l’obstruction parlementaire et des débats considérés comme trop longs sur des mesures jugées urgentes10. Autres moyens de contrôle Le Parlement autorise la déclaration de guerre, il est informé de l’intervention de l’armée à l’étranger et autorise sa prolongation au-delà de quatre moisC 10 ; il autorise la prorogation au-delà de douze jours de l’état de siègeC 11 et de l’état d’urgence11. Le Parlement autorise la prise d’ordonnances par le Gouvernement, qui sont normalement du domaine de la loi. Elles sont prises en Conseil des ministres après avis du Conseil d’État. Elles entrent en vigueur dès leur publication, mais deviennent caduques si le projet de loi de ratification n’est pas déposé devant le Parlement avant la date fixée par la loi d’habilitationC 12. Les traités sont négociés et ratifiés par le président de la RépubliqueC 13. Cependant, pour la plupart d’entre eux, la ratification doit être approuvée par le ParlementC 14. Dans le cas de la ratification d’un traité relatif à l’adhésion d’un État à l’Union européenne, la procédure première est le référendum, mais par le vote d’une motion adoptée en termes identiques par chaque assemblée à la majorité des trois cinquièmes, le Parlement peut autoriser l’adoption du projet de loi de ratification par un vote des parlementaires réunis en Congrès. Dans ce cas le texte doit réunir la majorité des trois cinquièmes des suffrages exprimésC 15. Chaque assemblée peut voter des résolutions marquant un souhait ou une préoccupation, à destination du Gouvernement, celles-ci ne doivent pas mettre en cause sa responsabilité ou contenir des injonctions à son égardC 16,LO 1. Elle peut le faire également sur des projets d’actes européensC 17.La Conférence des présidents de l’Assemblée nationale peut créer des missions d’information12. Questions François Fillon, Premier ministre français de 2007 à 2012, répond à la question d'un élu à l’Assemblée nationale, le 18 décembre 2007. Les députés peuvent interroger publiquement les membres du gouvernement de plusieurs façons. Les questions écrites se déroulent en dehors de la séance, la question ainsi que la réponse du ministre sont publiés au Journal officiel. C’est une procédure très utilisée : de 3 700 questions écrites déposées en 1959, on est passé à 12 000 en 1994 et environ 28 353 en 201113. Face à ce surnombre, l'Assemblée débat en 2014 de limitation. En effet, le taux de réponse de 96 % durant la législature 1993-1997 chute à 68 % et seul un quart des questions obtient une réponse dans le délai fixé de deux mois14. Le président de l'Assemblée nationale Claude Bartolone annonce le 22 juin 2015 une limitation annuelle du nombre de questions écrites à 52 par député à partir du 1er octobre 2015, et ce jusqu’au 30 septembre 201615. Cette limitation est pérennisée16. Si la plupart des questions écrites sont personnelles, une partie d'entre elles sont suggérées par différents groupes d'intérêts16. Selon le règlement de l’Assemblée nationale en vigueur en 2018, les réponses des ministres doivent être publiées « dans les deux mois » suivant leur publication. Les présidents de groupe du Palais Bourbon ont ensuite la « faculté » de signaler au Journal officiel certaines des questions restées sans réponse auxquelles l'exécutif doit alors répondre « dans un délai de dix jours ». Toutefois au 1er mars 2018, le taux de réponse n'était que de 39 % pour les sénateurs et 42 % pour les députés17. Les questions orales sont posées directement pendant la séance, on distingue les « questions orales sans débatN 1 », les « questions au gouvernement » créées en 197418 (retransmises en direct sur France 3 depuis 1982 et sur LCP depuis octobre 2017) et les « questions à un ministre »13. Autres prérogatives Le président de la République peut faire lire un message qui ne donne lieu à aucun débat et, depuis la modification de la Constitution de 2008, peut s’exprimer devant le Parlement réuni en congrèsC 18. Le Parlement peut destituer le président de la République en cas de « manquement à ses devoirs manifestement incompatible avec l’exercice de son mandat ». Il est alors constitué en Haute CourC 19. Chaque chambre élit, après chaque renouvellement général ou partiel, six des quinze juges de la Cour de justice de la République, chargée de juger les infractions commises par les membres du Gouvernement pendant l'exercice de leurs fonctionsC 20. Le Parlement vote la révision de la Constitution. Dans ce cas, contrairement aux lois ordinaires, le texte doit être voté en termes identiques par les deux assemblées. La révision est ensuite approuvée par référendum ou, pour les projets de loi uniquement, par un vote des parlementaires réunis en Congrès. Dans ce cas le texte doit réunir la majorité des trois cinquièmes des suffrages exprimésC 21. Chaque assemblée peut voter des résolutions sur la modification de son propre règlement, celles-ci doivent être soumises au Conseil constitutionnelC 6. Dissolution Article détaillé : Dissolution parlementaire (France). Le président de la République peut dissoudre l’Assemblée nationale. Ceci ne peut être fait plus d’une fois par anC 22. Il ne s’agit pas d’une mesure propre à la France et de nombreux chefs d’État de démocratie occidentale disposent également de ce droit (ainsi en Allemagne le président fédéral Horst Köhler a dissous le Bundestag le 21 juillet 2005 à la demande du chancelier Gerhard Schröder). Une dissolution entraîne automatiquement la tenue d’élections législatives qui sont dites alors « anticipées ». Depuis 1958, et au 1er juillet 2016, il y eut cinq dissolutions. Charles de Gaulle dissout l’Assemblée une première fois le 10 octobre 1962, après l’adoption d’une motion de censure contre le gouvernement Georges Pompidou. Le président préfère renommer immédiatement Georges Pompidou et dissout l'Assemblée afin de faire trancher ce conflit par les électeurs. Cette dissolution est suivie par des législatives qui marquent la victoire des gaullistes de l’UNR-UDT et de leurs alliés Républicains indépendants. Il utilise ce droit une seconde fois, le 30 mai 1968, pour dénouer la crise de Mai 68. Cette dissolution entraîna des élections législatives anticipées marquées par une forte victoire des gaullistes qui obtiennent à eux seuls la majorité absolue (293 élus sur 487 pour l’UDR). François Mitterrand dissout l’Assemblée le 22 mai 1981, après sa victoire à la présidentielle et pour disposer d’une majorité à l’Assemblée, qu’il obtiendra largement aux législatives (le Parti socialiste obtenant à lui seul la majorité absolue avec 266 députés sur 491). Il fait de même le 14 mai 1988, après sa réélection et pour la même raison, la victoire de la gauche aux législatives est forte, mais moindre qu'en 1981 (275 élus socialistes sur 575, alliés à 41 élus de l’Union du centre). Jacques Chirac dissout l’Assemblée le 21 avril 1997, afin d’anticiper des élections législatives prévues un an après. Contrairement à son souhait, elle entraîne la victoire des socialistes et de leurs alliés de la Majorité plurielle aux législatives anticipées et la nomination du gouvernement Lionel Jospin. Organisation des sessions et des séances Article connexe : Conférence des présidents de l'Assemblée nationale. Hémicycle de l'Assemblée nationale lors du vote d'une loi en 2009. Sessions Les périodes des débats ayant lieu dans l’hémicycle (qui ne représentent qu’une partie du travail d’un député), appelées sessions parlementaires, existent sous trois catégories : la session ordinaire se tenant d’octobre à juinC 23. Il y avait originellement deux sessions ordinaires par an de trois mois chacune (respectivement du 2 octobre au 20 décembre et du 2 avril au 30 juin, prévoyant ainsi aux députés des « vacances d’hivers » et « d’été »). Cette situation fut très critiquée par l’ancien président de l’Assemblée Philippe Séguin qui parraina une réforme en 1995 qui établit alors une session unique annuelle d’au moins 120 jours de session par an s’établissant entre le premier jour ouvrable d’octobre et le dernier jour ouvrable de juin, chaque assemblée décidant alors comme elle l’entend des semaines de session ainsi que de ses jours et horaires de réunion. la session extraordinaire : en dehors de la session ordinaire, le Parlement peut être convoqué en session extraordinaire par décret du président de la République et à la demande du Premier ministre ou de la majorité des députés, pour douze jours au plusC 24. Ces dernières années il était fréquent d’avoir une session extraordinaire au mois de juillet et au mois de septembre19. les réunions de plein droit : l’Assemblée se réunit de plein droit après une dissolution (le deuxième jeudi suivant l’élection de la nouvelle Assemblée et pour 15 jours si jamais la session ordinaire n’est pas ouverte alors)C 22, durant l’application des pouvoirs spéciaux du chef de l’ÉtatC 25 ou simplement pour entendre un message officiel lu du président de la RépubliqueC 18. Calendrier Le calendrier s’organise en cycles de quatre semaines, de la façon suivanteC 26 : deux semaines consacrées à l’examen des textes du gouvernement, une semaine consacrée à l’examen des textes proposés par les députés avec une journée réservée aux textes d’un groupe minoritaire ou d'opposition, une semaine de contrôle. Ordre du jour Le public assiste aux séances depuis les tribunes (photo : 2013). L’ordre du jour est fixé par la Conférence des présidents de l'Assemblée nationale. Les débats sont organisés en « séances ». Sur une semaine, les séances se tiennent généralement de la manière suivante20 : le mardi de 9 heures 30 à 13 heures, pour les questions orales sans débat lors des semaines de contrôle, de 15 heures à 20 heures (la tranche 15 heures à 17 heures étant réservée aux questions au gouvernement), de 21 heures 30 à minuit au plus tard ; le mercredi de 15 heures à 20 heures, de 21 heures 30 à minuit au plus tard ; le jeudi de 9 heures à 13 heures, de 15 heures à 20 heures, de 21 heures 30 à minuit au plus tard. Quand les circonstances l'exigent, le Gouvernement peut demander de droit l'ouverture de jours de séance supplémentaires le lundi et le vendredi, jours traditionnellement réservés au travail en circonscription. Dans le cas du lundi, la séance ouvre au plus tôt à 16 heures. Le service de la séance prépare l’ordre du jour, en lien étroit avec le ministère des Relations avec le Parlement. Les échanges sont permanents, afin d'adapter par exemple l'agenda ministériel avec le débat parlementaire21. Des séances publiques Les séances de l’Assemblée nationale sont publiques. Elle peut siéger en comité secretC 27 (ce qui n’est jamais arrivé sous la Ve République22). Il est possible d’assister aux débats depuis des places situées au-dessus de l’hémicycle, il faut pour cela avoir une invitation d’un député23. On peut aussi les suivre en lecture en continu sur le site de l’Assemblée ou sur La Chaîne parlementaire. Les comptes rendus sont publiés dans le Journal officiel et sur le site de l'Assemblée nationale. Position des acteurs Chaque député se voit attribuer un emplacement dans l’hémicycle24. Ils sont regroupés par groupe politique, et plus généralement par « gauche » et « droite » du point de vue de la tribune de l’orateur, elle-même située sous le « perchoir » (appellation courante de l'emplacement du président de l’Assemblée). En séance, les députés ont néanmoins le droit de se déplacer et s'asseoir à une autre place que la leur (sous réserve bien sûr qu'elle ne soit pas occupée par son propriétaire). Les membres du gouvernement ont accès à l’AssembléeC 28 pour défendre leurs textes et leur politique. Ils sont installés sur les bancs les plus bas de l’hémicycle. Le rapporteur d’un texte et le ministre concerné sont accompagnés respectivement d'administrateurs et de commissaires du gouvernement, qui sont installés sur le banc immédiatement derrière eux, mais qui ne peuvent intervenir dans le débat. Le public assiste aux séances depuis les tribunes, qui peuvent, pour tout ou partie, être réservées à la presse. En outre, les collaborateurs du président de séance, les conseillers politiques des groupes et des ministres et les commissaires du Gouvernement peuvent également suivre les débats, soit aux trois places à côté de chaque entrée de l'hémicycle, soit sur les balustrades au-dessus de chaque entrée, appelées « guignols ». Enfin, tout autour du « perchoir » et près des entrées se trouvent des places pour certains administrateurs de l'Assemblée nationale et les huissiers. Le « cimetière » Une tribune, surnommée « cimetière », est spécialement réservée aux anciens députés25,26. Présidence Le président de séance est assisté dans les débats par le secrétaire général de la présidence de l’Assemblée nationale, qui peut être suppléé par le directeur général des services législatifs ou le directeur du service de la séance. Lors des débats législatifs, il actualise en temps réel le « dossier du président » selon l'abandon ou l'ajout en dernière minute d'amendements. Il conseille également le Président de séance en cas d’incident de séance ou sur une question de procédure inhabituelle. Il peut s'asseoir sur un petit siège rouge surnommé « la miséricorde » juste à côté du siège du président (« perchoir ») pour le conseiller21. Élections des députés Articles connexes : Député français et Nombre de parlementaires sous la Cinquième République. Depuis 1958, le nombre de députés a varié entre 482 et 579. Il est fixé à 577 depuis les élections de 1986N 2 ; depuis la Loi constitutionnelle du 23 juillet 2008, ce nombre est le plafond fixé par la ConstitutionC 1. Conditions d'éligibilité Les modalités d’élection des députés sont fixées dans le Code électoral. La présente section est applicable depuis les élections de 2012. Les conditions essentielles pour se présenter aux élections sont de détenir la nationalité française, et d’être âgé au minimum de 18 ansN 3 ; en outre : « Nul ne peut être élu s'il ne justifie avoir satisfait aux obligations imposées par le code du service national »27 ; les majeurs en tutelle ou en curatelle sont inéligiblesLO 2. Le mandat de député ne peut se cumuler avec celui de sénateur, de député européen, de membre du Gouvernement, du Conseil constitutionnel, du Conseil économique, social et environnementalLO 3. Le mandat de député est incompatible avec la fonction de militaire, et avec l'exercice de plus d’un des mandats suivants : conseiller régional, conseiller à l’Assemblée de Corse, conseiller général, conseiller de Paris, conseiller municipal d’une commune d’au moins 3 500 habitantsLO 4 ; le défenseur des droits et le contrôleur général des lieux de privation de liberté sont inéligibles pendant la durée de leurs fonctionsLO 5 ; les préfets sont inéligibles en France dans toute circonscription comprise en tout ou partie dans le ressort dans lequel ils exercent ou ont exercé leurs fonctions depuis moins de trois ans à la date du scrutinLO 6 (liste non exhaustive). À compter du premier renouvellement de l’Assemblée nationale suivant le 31 mars 2017, le mandat de député est incompatible avec des fonctions exécutives locales (maires, présidents de Conseil régional ou de Conseil départemental…)LO 7 Organisation des élections Articles détaillés : Procédures électorales françaises, Élections législatives en France, Circonscriptions législatives (France), Liste des circonscriptions législatives en France et Circonscriptions législatives des Français établis hors de France. Les députés sont élus au suffrage universel direct avec un scrutin uninominal majoritaire à deux tours. Chaque département est découpé en plusieurs circonscriptions qui comptent en moyenne 105 600 habitants. La loi électorale de 1986 précise que les écarts de population entre circonscriptions ne doivent en aucun cas aboutir à ce qu'une circonscription dépasse de plus de 20 % la population moyenne des circonscriptions du département28. La loi organique du 10 juillet 1985 avait instauré le scrutin proportionnel plurinominal à la plus forte moyenne dans le cadre du département. Il fallait dans ce cadre obtenir au moins 5 % des suffrages pour avoir un élu. Les législatives de 1986 ont donné à la France une nouvelle majorité qui a remis en place le scrutin majoritaire. Mais l’idée d'introduire une dose de proportionnelle dans le cadre d'un système mixte revient souvent sur le devant de la scène politique. En application de la loi constitutionnelle du 23 juillet 2008 qui a instauré la représentation des Français vivant hors de France à l’Assemblée nationale et du redécoupage des circonscriptions de 2010, les sièges sont répartis de la manière suivante, depuis les élections de 2012 : 556 pour les départements ; 10 pour les collectivités d’outre-mer ; 11 pour l’élection des députés représentant les Français établis hors de France. Chaque candidat se présente avec un suppléant qui prend sa place en cas de décès ou d’incompatibilité de fonction. Pour être élu au premier tour, un candidat doit obtenir la majorité absolue des suffrages exprimés et un nombre de suffrages égal au quart du nombre des électeurs inscrits29. Un candidat peut se présenter au second tour s’il a obtenu au premier tour un suffrage de 12,5 % des électeurs inscrits. Dans le cas où un seul candidat remplit ces conditions, le candidat ayant obtenu après celui-ci le plus grand nombre de suffrages au premier tour peut se maintenir au second. Dans le cas où aucun candidat ne remplit ces conditions, les deux candidats ayant obtenu le plus grand nombre de suffrages au premier tour peuvent se maintenir au second29. Au second tour, la majorité relative suffit pour être élu. En cas d'égalité de suffrages, le plus âgé est déclaré élu29. Remplacement des députés Un député dont le siège devient vacant pour cause de décès, d’acceptation des fonctions de membre du Gouvernement, du Conseil constitutionnel ou de Défenseur des droits ou de prolongation au-delà du délai de six mois d’une mission temporaire confiée par le Gouvernement est remplacé jusqu’au renouvellement de l’Assemblée nationale par son suppléantLO 8. En cas d’annulation des opérations électorales d’une circonscription, dans les cas de vacance autres que ceux qui sont mentionnés précédemment, il est procédé à des élections partielles dans un délai de trois mois. Toutefois, il n'est procédé à aucune élection partielle dans les douze mois qui précèdent l'expiration des pouvoirs de l'Assemblée nationaleLO 9. Parité et droits des femmes Articles connexes : Femmes à l'Assemblée nationale française et Loi tendant à favoriser l'égal accès des femmes et des hommes aux mandats électoraux et fonctions électives. L'histoire des femmes et de l'Assemblée nationale en France se rapporte à l'émancipation des femmes dans la vie politique législative française et, depuis 1945, leur participation aux élections de l'Assemblée nationale, par le vote et l'arrivée de certaines à la députation. Si l'Assemblée consultative provisoire siégeant à Alger du 3 novembre 1943 au 25 juillet 1944 ne comprend qu'une seule femme, Marthe Simard (Lucie Aubrac, nommée mais n'ayant pu se déplacer en Algérie, sera remplacée par son mari Raymond Aubrac), dans celle de Paris, du 7 novembre 1944 au 3 août 1945, siègent 16 femmes parmi les délégués. Quelques mois plus tard, les élections législatives du 21 octobre 1945, qui installent une assemblée constituante, sont ouvertes aux femmes et aux militaires, et permettent à 33 femmes d'entrer pour la première fois de l'Histoire à l'Assemblée nationale : 17 sont communistes, 6 socialistes, 9 appartiennent au MRP du général de Gaulle et une provient de l'éphémère Parti républicain de la liberté. En 1945, elles représentent 5,6 % des députés, voient leur proportion descendre jusqu’à 1,4 % en 1958 puis passer de 7,1 % en 1981 à 10,9 % en 1997 et 18,5 % en 2007. Depuis la loi du 6 juin 2000 sur la parité, l’aide publique aux formations politiques est diminuée au fur et à mesure que l’écart entre le nombre de candidats de chaque sexe augmente. Le nombre de femmes a alors augmenté parmi les députés, sans pour autant atteindre la parité (10,9 % en 1997 ; 12,3 % en 2002 et 18,5 % en 2007)30. Après les élections législatives de 2012, il y a 155 députées soit 26,9 %31. Les élections législatives des 11 et 18 juin 2017 permettent de battre le record de femmes à l'Assemblée avec 223 députées sur 577 soit 38,65 % de la représentation nationale32. Organisation Bureau Article détaillé : Bureau de l'Assemblée nationale française. Le Bureau de l'Assemblée nationale est la plus haute autorité collégiale l'organisant. Il exerce une compétence générale sur l'organisation et le fonctionnement interne de la chambre basse et comporte vingt-deux membres, dont le président qui est élu pour toute la législature. Les autres membres du bureau (vice-présidents, questeurs et secrétaires) sont élus au début de chaque législature, au cours de la séance qui suit l’élection du Président et renouvelés à chaque ouverture de session ordinaire, à l’exception de celle précédant le renouvellement de l’Assemblée. Lors de la séance d’ouverture de la législature qui voit l’élection du président et du premier bureau, il est mis en place un « bureau d’âge » dont le président est le doyen d’âge des députés assisté des six députés les plus jeunes qui remplissent alors les fonctions de secrétaires. Ce Bureau d’âge n'est en fonction que pour procéder à l’élection du Président de l'Assemblée. Même si aucun débat ne peut avoir lieu sous la présidence du doyen d'âge, il est d'usage depuis 1876 que ce dernier adresse à ses collègues une allocution à l'occasion de laquelle il fait part de quelques réflexions inspirées par son expérience de la vie parlementaire33. Le premier doyen à effectuer ce discours est François-Vincent Raspail qui prononce une harangue34. Président de l'Assemblée nationale Article détaillé : Liste des présidents de l'Assemblée nationale française et des chambres assimilées. Jacques Chaban-Delmas est président de l’Assemblée nationale à plusieurs reprises pour une durée cumulée de quinze ans. Richard Ferrand, président de l'Assemblée nationale depuis septembre 2018. Le président de l’Assemblée nationale a un rôle de direction des débats et d’organisation des travaux de l’Assemblée. Il est le quatrième personnage de l'État dans l'ordre de préséance lors des cérémonies protocolaires, derrière le président de la République, le Premier ministre et enfin le président du Sénat35. Dans la procédure législative, le président ouvre et ferme la séance, anime les débats et fait appliquer le règlement. Il peut être remplacé dans ces fonctions par un des vice-présidents. Il peut, depuis la réforme constitutionnelle de 2008, soumettre une proposition de loi à l’avis du Conseil d'ÉtatC 29, ou bien demander, conjointement au président du Sénat, de provoquer la réunion d'une commission mixte paritaire, dans le cas d’une proposition de loiC 29. Il veille également au respect des procédures pour les autres activités de l’Assemblée36. Il a de plus d'importantes prérogatives constitutionnelles : il nomme trois des neuf membres du Conseil constitutionnel et deux des six personnalités extérieures du Conseil supérieur de la magistrature (à égalité avec le président de la République et le président du Sénat)C 30,C 31 ; il doit être consulté par le président de la République avant que celui-ci n’exerce certains de ses pouvoirs constitutionnels (comme la dissolution ou concernant les pleins pouvoirs en période de crise)C 32. Il peut en outre à tout moment saisir le Conseil constitutionnel pour vérifier la constitutionnalité d'une loi avant sa promulgation ou d'un engagement international. Il peut également décider, avec le Bureau, de réformer le règlement et le mode de fonctionnement de l'Assemblée nationale36. Lorsque ces organes sont réunis, il préside le Congrès du Parlement et la Haute Cour de justice36. Le président de l’Assemblée nationale est élu au début de la législature pour la durée de celle-ciC 33. La première séance est présidée par le doyen d’âge qui organise l’élection du président parmi les députés. L’élection se fait à bulletin secret à la tribune de l’hémicycle. Pour être élu, un député doit avoir la majorité absolue aux deux premiers tours, ou la majorité relative au troisième. S'il y a toujours égalité, le candidat le plus âgé est élu36. Bien que l'information ne soit pas rendue publique, le montant de l'indemnité du président de l'Assemblée nationale est connu et s'élève à environ 21 000 €, sensiblement plus élevé que celui des députés37. Vice-présidents Les six vice-présidents de l'Assemblée nationale, dont la répartition est l’objet d’un consensus entre les différents groupes politiques qui désignent au préalable leurs candidats, ont essentiellement pour but de remplacer au perchoir le président de l’Assemblée nationale si celui-ci est empêché, avec un ordre successif de remplacement allant du premier au sixième vice-président. De plus, chaque vice-président dirige une des six délégations dans lesquelles se répartissent les membres du bureau pour préparer certaines décisions. Il y a ainsi actuellement des délégations chargées : de l’application du statut du député, de la communication, des activités internationales, des questions concernant les offices parlementaires, d’examiner la recevabilité des propositions de loi, des groupes d’études. Ils font enfin partie, avec le président de l’Assemblée nationale, les présidents des commissions et les présidents des groupes politiques, de la Conférence des Présidents qui est amenée à donner son avis sur l’ordre du jour de travail prioritaire fixé par le gouvernement. Questeurs Article détaillé : Questeur (parlement). En vertu de l’article 10-2 du règlement de l’Assemblée nationale, l’élection des membres du Bureau « a lieu en s’efforçant de reproduire au sein du Bureau la configuration politique de l’Assemblée ». Ainsi, parmi les trois questeurs de l’Assemblée nationale, l’un d’eux est issu de l’opposition. Les questeurs exercent des pouvoirs étendus en matière financière, comptable et administrative dans le cadre de l’autonomie de gestion de l’Assemblée nationale. Les trois questeurs « sont chargés des services financiers et administratifs. Aucune dépense nouvelle ne peut être engagée sans leur avis préalable »38. Les services dont ils sont chargés ne peuvent donc engager directement aucune dépense. Secrétaires Le collège des douze secrétaires, lui aussi disposant d’une constitution pluraliste, assiste le président en séance publique, constate les votes tout en vérifiant leur validité et celle des délégations de vote, et les résultats des scrutins qui sont ensuite proclamés par le président. Commissions Commissions législatives permanentes Il existe au plus huit commissions permanentes dans chaque assemblée. Elles sont principalement chargées de discuter et de voter les textes avant les séances plénières. Il est possible, à la demande du Gouvernement, de créer une commission spéciale, pour un texte précisC 34. Une commission spéciale ou permanente peut convoquer toute personne dont elle estime l’audition nécessaireOrd58 2. La loi constitutionnelle du 23 juillet 2008 prévoit que la commission permanente compétente de chaque assemblée doit se prononcer sur certaines nominations du président de la République, comme celles des membres du Conseil constitutionnelC 35,39. De la même façon, les nominations au Conseil constitutionnel effectuées par le président de chaque chambre sont soumises au seul avis de la commission compétente de l’assemblée concernéeC 36. Depuis l’entrée en vigueur de la loi organique relative aux lois de finances, la commission des finances est chargée de vérifier le budget de l’État ainsi que son emploiLO 10. Les commissions permanentes ont un rôle important en matière de contrôle : elles peuvent procéder à des auditions et créer des missions d’informations. Elles peuvent contrôler, via des rapports, l’application des lois par le Gouvernement. Les commissions entendent ainsi très fréquemment des membres du Gouvernement, y compris le Premier ministre, des commissaires européens, des experts, des représentants des milieux socioprofessionnels ou toute autre personnalité. Au cours de la XIVe législature, 2 837 auditions ont été organisées par les commissions permanentes et spéciales. Sauf dérogations, ces auditions sont publiques40. Au 28 octobre 2020, les huit commissions permanentes sont41 : Commission Président Commission des Affaires culturelles et de l'Éducation Bruno Studer (La République en marche) Commission des Affaires économiques Roland Lescure (La République en marche) Commission des Affaires étrangères Jean-Louis Bourlanges (Mouvement démocrate) Commission des Affaires sociales Fadila Khattabi (La République en marche) Commission de la Défense nationale et des Forces armées Françoise Dumas (La République en marche) Commission du Développement durable et de l'Aménagement du territoire Laurence Maillart-Méhaignerie (La République en marche) Commission des Finances, de l'Économie générale et du Contrôle budgétaire Éric Woerth (Les Républicains) Commission des Lois constitutionnelles, de la Législation et de l'Administration générale de la République Yaël Braun-Pivet (La République en marche) Commissions d'enquête Article détaillé : Commission d'enquête parlementaire en France. Chaque assemblée peut créer une commission d’enquête parlementaire par le vote d’une résolution. Elles sont formées pour recueillir des éléments d’information soit sur des faits déterminés, soit sur la gestion des services publics ou des entreprises nationales, en vue de soumettre leurs conclusions à l’assemblée qui les a créées. Il ne peut être créé de commission d’enquête sur des faits ayant donné lieu à des poursuites judiciaires et aussi longtemps que ces poursuites sont en cours. Si une commission a déjà été créée, sa mission prend fin dès l’ouverture d'une information judiciaire relative aux faits sur lesquels elle est chargée d’enquêter. Les membres des commissions d’enquête sont désignés de façon à y assurer une représentation proportionnelle des groupes politiques. Les commissions d’enquête ont un caractère temporaire. Leur mission prend fin par le dépôt de leur rapport et, au plus tard, à l’expiration d’un délai de six mois à compter de la date de l’adoption de la résolution qui les a créées. Elles ne peuvent être reconstituées avec le même objet avant l’expiration d’un délai de douze mois à compter de la fin de leur missionC 37,Ord58 3. Autres instances Depuis la loi constitutionnelle du 23 juillet 2008, le Gouvernement doit soumettre à l’Assemblée nationale et au Sénat, dès leur transmission au Conseil de l'Union européenne, les projets d’actes législatifs européens et les autres projets ou propositions d’actes de l’Union européenne ; une commission particulière est chargée des affaires européennes dans chaque assembléeC 38,Ord58 4. L’office parlementaire d'évaluation des choix scientifiques et technologiques est composé de dix-huit députés et dix-huit sénateurs. Il a pour mission d’informer le Parlement des conséquences des choix de caractère scientifique et technologique afin, notamment, d’éclairer ses décisionsOrd58 5. Il existe une délégation parlementaire au renseignementOrd58 6, commune à l’Assemblée nationale et au Sénat ; et, dans chaque assemblée, une délégation parlementaire aux droits des femmes et à l’égalité des chances entre les hommes et les femmesOrd58 7 et une délégation parlementaire aux outre-merOrd58 8, de même qu'une délégation aux collectivités territoriales et à la décentralisation depuis 2009 au Sénat et 2017 à l'Assemblée4243. Les groupes d'amitié de l’Assemblée nationale regroupent les députés qui ont un intérêt particulier pour un pays étranger. Leur rôle est la coopération interparlementaire, la représentation internationale de l’Assemblée nationale et la diplomatie44. Il existe aussi des groupes d'études, qui sont des « instances ouvertes à tous les députés et constituées pour approfondir et suivre des questions spécifiques, qu’elles soient de nature politique, économique, sociale ou internationale. Ces instances n’interviennent pas directement dans la procédure législative. Leur mission est d’assurer une veille juridique et technique sur des questions trop spécialisées pour faire l’objet d’un examen suivi par les commissions permanentes (problématique, secteur d’activité…). Les groupes d’études sont également le lieu de discussions et d’échanges irremplaçables entre députés de tous bords. » selon le site de l'Assemblée nationale. Toujours selon ce site, 105 groupes d'études ont été agréés depuis le début de la XIVe législature, qui est la législature en cours (2017-2022)45. Les clubs parlementaires, souvent informels, permettent la rencontre de parlementaires et de représentants d'intérêts46. Groupes politiques Selon le règlement de l'Assemblée nationale, les « députés peuvent se regrouper par affinités politiques » en groupes parlementaires. Ils doivent contenir au moins 15 membres (depuis 2009, ce nombre était de 20 entre 1988 et 2009, et de 30 auparavant). Le groupe politique doit présenter lors de l'ouverture de la législature au président de l'Assemblée nationale une déclaration politique signée par ses membres. Outre les membres de plein droit du groupe, qui sont généralement membres d’un même parti (PS, LR, EELV, etc.), certains députés peuvent « s'apparenter » à un groupe : ils ne sont pas alors inclus dans le quota minimum de 15 nécessaires pour la formation du groupe. Il s'agit en règle générale de membres issus de petits partis ou sans étiquette proches de la tendance du mouvement politique principal à l'origine de la formation du groupe. Les groupes décident, avec le président de l'Assemblée nationale, des zones de l'hémicycle où ils siégeront. Ils sont ensuite seuls juges de la manière de répartir leurs membres et apparentés au sein de cette zone. Ils ont leur propre organisation et leur propre règlement intérieur, élisent en leur sein un président qui les représentera au sein de la Conférence des Présidents et qui disposera de plusieurs prérogatives importantes (comme la demande ou au contraire l'opposition à la création d'une commission spéciale, le droit d'obtenir une suspension de séance pour réunir le groupe, de demander le vote au scrutin public, d'appeler en séance à la vérification du quorum à l'occasion d'un vote, de préparer l'ordre du jour parlementaire mensuel propre à leur groupe, de proposer ou de s'opposer à l'engagement de procédures d'engagement simplifiées, ou encore le « droit de tirage » qui leur permet d'obtenir une fois par an l'examen en séance publique d'une résolution proposant la création d'une commission d'enquête, etc.). Chaque groupe, en fonction de son poids numérique au sein de l'Assemblée, désigne ses représentants au sein du Bureau et des différentes commissions. Ils ont en plus, en fonction de leur taille, une subvention financière propre et disposent de bureaux et de salles pour se réunir. Le record de nombre de groupes politiques est atteint en mai 2020 avec la création d'un neuvième et d'un dixième groupe. Majorités et présidence depuis 1958 Articles détaillés : Composition de l'Assemblée nationale française par législature et Liste des présidents de l'Assemblée nationale. Composition et présidence de l'Assemblée nationale française par législatureN 4 Législature Élections Composition Présidence de l’Assemblée Ire 1958 Assemblée nationale Ie législature.svg(liste des députés) Jacques Chaban-Delmas IIe 1962 Assemblée nationale IIe législature.svg(liste des députés) Cette assemblée fut élue après la dissolution qui suivit une motion de censure dans le contexte du référendum portant sur l'élection au suffrage universel direct du Président de la République. Jacques Chaban-Delmas IIIe 1967 Assemblée nationale IIIe législature.svg(liste des députés) Jacques Chaban-Delmas IVe 1968 Assemblée Nationale française issue des élections de juin 1968.png(liste des députés) Cette assemblée fut élue après la dissolution consécutive aux évènements de Mai 68. Jacques Chaban-Delmas, puis Achille Peretti Ve 1973 Assemblée nationale Ve législature.png(liste des députés) Edgar Faure VIe 1978 Assemblée nationale VIe législature.png(liste des députés) Jacques Chaban-Delmas VIIe 1981 Assemblée nationale VIIe législature.png(liste des députés) François Mitterrand, élu président, a dissous l’Assemblée de 1978 pour avoir la majorité. Louis Mermaz VIIIe 1986 Assemblee 1986.svg(liste des députés) La majorité présidentielle perd les élections entraînant la première cohabitation. Il s'agit de la seule législature élue à la proportionnelle. Jacques Chaban-Delmas IXe 1988 Assemblée nationale IXe législature.png(liste des députés) François Mitterrand, réélu président, a dissous l’Assemblée de 1986 pour avoir la majorité. Laurent Fabius, puis Henri Emmanuelli Xe 1993 Assemblée Nationale, Élections de 1993.svg(liste des députés) La majorité présidentielle perd les élections entraînant la deuxième cohabitation. La nouvelle majorité est la plus vaste de toute l'histoire parlementaire française, gauche et droite confondues Philippe Séguin XIe 1997 1997 French National Assembly.svg(liste des députés) Jacques Chirac dissout l’Assemblée, mais la gauche plurielle remporte les élections, entraînant la troisième cohabitation. Laurent Fabius, puis Raymond Forni XIIe 2002 XII législature.svg(liste des députés) Jean-Louis Debré, puis Patrick Ollier XIIIe 2007 Svgfiles 2020-02-10-16-23-43-662003-11138313671843369614.svg(liste des députés) Bernard Accoyer XIVe 2012 Assemblee Nationale 15 législature groupes juin 2012.svg(liste des députés) Claude Bartolone XVe 2017 Diagramme assemblée nationale 2017.svg(liste des députés) François de Rugy, puis Richard Ferrand Détails du bureau, des groupes politiques, des commissions permanentes et délégations Pour la session entamée en 2018, le bureau est composé des députés suivants47 : Richard Ferrand, président Annie Genevard, vice-présidenteB 1 Marc Le Fur, vice-présidentB 2 David Habib, vice-président Sylvain Waserman, vice-présidentB 3 Hugues Renson, vice-présidentB 4 Laëtitia Saint-Paul, vice-présidente Florian Bachelier, questeur Laurianne Rossi, questeur Éric Ciotti, questeur Lénaïck Adam, secrétaire Ramlati Ali, secrétaire Danielle Brulebois, secrétaire Luc Carvounas, secrétaire Lionel Causse, secrétaire Alexis Corbière, secrétaire Laurence Dumont, secrétaire Marie Guévenoux, secrétaire Annaïg Le Meur, secrétaire Sophie Mette, secrétaire Gabriel Serville, secrétaire Guillaume Vuilletet, secrétaire Présidente de la délégation du bureau chargée de l'application du statut du député Président de la délégation du bureau chargée d'examiner la recevabilité des propositions de loi Président de la délégation du bureau chargée des représentants d'intérêts et des groupes d'études Président de la délégation du bureau chargée de la communication et de la presse Au 21 juillet 2021, les députés sont répartis en groupes politiques de la manière suivante48 : Groupe Membres Membres apparentés Total Président La République en marche 266 4 270 Christophe Castaner Les Républicains 97 8 105 Damien Abad Mouvement démocrate et apparentés 50 8 58 Patrick Mignola Socialistes et apparentés 26 3 29 Valérie Rabault Agir ensemble 22 0 22 Olivier Becht UDI et indépendants 19 0 19 Jean-Christophe Lagarde Libertés et territoires 16 1 17 Bertrand Pancher La France insoumise 17 0 17 Jean-Luc Mélenchon Gauche démocrate et républicaine 16 0 16 André Chassaigne Non-inscrits 22 – Sièges vacants 2 En février 2020, les six délégations parlementaires, comité et office sont49 : Délégation Président Délégation aux droits des femmes et à l'égalité des chances entre les hommes et les femmes Marie-Pierre Rixain Comité d'évaluation et de contrôle des politiques publiques Richard Ferrand Délégation aux outre-mer Olivier Serva Délégation parlementaire au renseignement La députée Françoise Dumas (Philippe Bas, sénateur et premier vice-président) Office parlementaire d'évaluation des choix scientifiques et technologiques Le député Cédric Villani (Gérard Longuet, sénateur et premier vice-président) Délégation aux collectivités territoriales et à la décentralisation Jean-René Cazeneuve Base de données Sycomore Depuis 2007, la base Sycomore sur le site de l'Assemblée nationale permet la recherche d'informations sur les députés français depuis la Révolution50. Administration Fonctionnaires Claude Bartolone préside une séance, il est assisté par Corinne Luquiens, secrétaire générale de l’Assemblée et de la présidence, à l’arrière-plan (photo : 2013). Les fonctionnaires de l’Assemblée nationale possèdent un statut spécifique en application du principe de séparation des pouvoirs51. Article détaillé : Liste des secrétaires généraux de l'Assemblée nationale. Le secrétaire général de l’Assemblée et de la Présidence (actuellement Michel Moreau depuis 2016) apporte au président de l’Assemblée son aide pendant la séance. Il est responsable des services législatifs52,53 : le secrétariat général de la Présidence ; la séance ; les six pôles fonctionnels, chargés notamment du secrétariat des commissions. les affaires juridiques, la culture et les questions sociales, l’économie et l’évaluation scientifique, les finances publiques, les affaires européennes, les affaires internationales et de défense, la communication et l’information multimédia ; la bibliothèque et les archives ; le compte rendu de la séance ; les comptes rendus des commissions. Le secrétaire général de la questure, est responsable devant les trois questeurs du bon fonctionnement des cinq services administratifs, qui sont : l'administration générale et la sécurité ; la logistique parlementaire ; le budget, le contrôle financier et les marchés ; la gestion financière et sociale ; les affaires immobilières et le patrimoine. Les deux secrétaires généraux sont conjointement responsables des deux services communs, qui sont : les ressources humaines ; les systèmes d'information. Les fonctionnaires, recrutés par des concours très sélectifs, sont répartis en cinq corps généralistes (administrateurs, administrateurs adjoints, secrétaires administratifs, secrétaires des services et agents) dont les membres ont vocation à changer de service régulièrement au titre d'une mobilité interne, et vingt et un corps spécialisés (tels les rédacteurs des comptes rendus, les ouvriers professionnels, les gardiens-surveillants, etc.). D’autres personnes travaillent à l’Assemblée sans être députés ou fonctionnaires : les secrétariats des groupes politiques54 et les assistants parlementaires55. Budget Les budgets de l’Assemblée nationale et du Sénat sont arrêtés par une commission composée des questeurs des deux chambres et présidée par un membre de la Cour des comptes56. Le budget de l’Assemblée fait partie de la mission « pouvoirs publics », les crédits ouverts pour 2010 sont de 533 910 000 euros57. Depuis 1993, une synthèse simplifiée rédigée par le président de la commission de vérification des comptes est publiée et diffusée. Le budget complet est consultable en ligne sur Internet58 depuis 201359. Selon Bernard Roman, questeur chargé du contrôle des finances du palais Bourbon, les fonctionnaires de l'Assemblée nationale gagnent en moyenne 8 000 euros par mois en 201560. En 2019, la principale section du budget, les dépenses de fonctionnement, sont de 583 794 378 euros, et se répartissant surtout en charges parlementaires (323 179 092 euros, soit environ 55 % du budget), dépenses de personnel (187 477 289 euros, soit environ 32 % du budget) et dépenses courantes (fournitures, entretien, impôts, services : 41 803 042, soit environ 7 % du budget)61. Robert Prigent (24 November 1910 - 13 July 1995) was a French politician. He served as a member of the National Assembly from 1945 to 1951, representing Nord.[1] He was also the Minister of Population and Public Health from 1945 to 1947.[1]
France (French: [fʁɑ̃s] Listen), officially the French Republic (French: République française),[14] is a transcontinental country predominantly located in Western Europe and spanning overseas regions and territories in the Americas and the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans.[XII] Its metropolitan area extends from the Rhine to the Atlantic Ocean and from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea; overseas territories include French Guiana in South America, Saint Pierre and Miquelon in the North Atlantic, the French West Indies, and many islands in Oceania and the Indian Ocean. Due to its several coastal territories, France has the largest exclusive economic zone in the world. France borders Belgium, Luxembourg, Germany, Switzerland, Monaco, Italy, Andorra, and Spain in continental Europe, as well as the Netherlands, Suriname, and Brazil in the Americas via its overseas territories in French Guiana and Saint Martin. Its eighteen integral regions (five of which are overseas) span a combined area of 643,801 km2 (248,573 sq mi) and close to 68 million people (as of July 2022).[5][8] France is a unitary semi-presidential republic with its capital in Paris, the country's largest city and main cultural and commercial centre; other major urban areas include Marseille, Lyon, Toulouse, Lille, Bordeaux, and Nice. Inhabited since the Palaeolithic era, the territory of Metropolitan France was settled by Celtic tribes known as Gauls during the Iron Age. Rome annexed the area in 51 BC, leading to a distinct Gallo-Roman culture that laid the foundation of the French language. The Germanic Franks formed the Kingdom of Francia, which became the heartland of the Carolingian Empire. The Treaty of Verdun of 843 partitioned the empire, with West Francia becoming the Kingdom of France in 987. In the High Middle Ages, France was a powerful but highly decentralised feudal kingdom. Philip II successfully strengthened royal power and defeated his rivals to double the size of the crown lands; by the end of his reign, France had emerged as the most powerful state in Europe. From the mid-14th to the mid-15th century, France was plunged into a series of dynastic conflicts involving England, collectively known as the Hundred Years' War, and a distinct French identity emerged as a result. The French Renaissance saw art and culture flourish, conflict with the House of Habsburg, and the establishment of a global colonial empire, which by the 20th century would become the second-largest in the world.[15] The second half of the 16th century was dominated by religious civil wars between Catholics and Huguenots that severely weakened the country. France again emerged as Europe's dominant power in the 17th century under Louis XIV following the Thirty Years' War.[16] Inadequate economic policies, inequitable taxes and frequent wars (notably a defeat in the Seven Years' War and costly involvement in the American War of Independence), left the kingdom in a precarious economic situation by the end of the 18th century. This precipitated the French Revolution of 1789, which overthrew the Ancien Régime and produced the Declaration of the Rights of Man, which expresses the nation's ideals to this day. France reached its political and military zenith in the early 19th century under Napoleon Bonaparte, subjugating much of continental Europe and establishing the First French Empire. The French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of European and world history. The collapse of the empire initiated a period of relative decline, in which France endured a tumultuous succession of governments until the founding of the French Third Republic during the Franco-Prussian War in 1870. Subsequent decades saw a period of optimism, cultural and scientific flourishing, as well as economic prosperity known as the Belle Époque. France was one of the major participants of World War I, from which it emerged victorious at great human and economic cost. It was among the Allied powers of World War II, but was soon occupied by the Axis in 1940. Following liberation in 1944, the short-lived Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War. The current Fifth Republic was formed in 1958 by Charles de Gaulle. Algeria and most French colonies became independent in the 1960s, with the majority retaining close economic and military ties with France. France retains its centuries-long status as a global centre of art, science and philosophy. It hosts the fifth-largest number of UNESCO World Heritage Sites and is the world's leading tourist destination, receiving over 89 million foreign visitors in 2018.[17] France is a developed country with the world's seventh-largest economy by nominal GDP and tenth-largest by PPP; in terms of aggregate household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world.[18] France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy and human development.[19][20] It remains a great power in global affairs,[21] being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council and an official nuclear-weapon state. France is a founding and leading member of the European Union and the Eurozone,[22] as well as a key member of the Group of Seven, North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and La Francophonie. Contents 1 Etymology and pronunciation 2 History 2.1 Prehistory (before the 6th century BC) 2.2 Antiquity (6th century BC–5th century AD) 2.3 Early Middle Ages (5th–10th century) 2.4 High and Late Middle Ages (10th–15th century) 2.5 Early modern period (15th century–1789) 2.6 Revolutionary France (1789–1799) 2.7 Napoleon and 19th century (1799–1914) 2.8 Early to mid-20th century (1914–1946) 2.9 Contemporary period (1946–present) 3 Geography 3.1 Location and borders 3.2 Geology, topography and hydrography 3.3 Climate 3.4 Environment 3.5 Administrative divisions 3.5.1 Regions 3.5.2 Overseas territories and collectivities 4 Government and politics 4.1 Government 4.2 Law 4.3 Foreign relations 4.4 Military 4.5 Government finance 5 Economy 5.1 Agriculture 5.2 Tourism 5.2.1 Paris region 5.2.2 French Riviera 5.2.3 Châteaux 5.2.4 Other protected areas 5.3 Energy 5.4 Transport 6 Science and technology 7 Demographics 7.1 Ethnic groups 7.2 Immigration 7.3 Major cities 7.4 Language 7.5 Religion 7.6 Health 7.7 Education 8 Culture 8.1 Art 8.2 Architecture 8.3 Literature 8.4 Philosophy 8.5 Music 8.6 Cinema 8.7 Fashion 8.8 Media 8.9 Society 8.10 Cuisine 8.11 Sports 9 See also 10 Footnotes 11 References 12 Further reading 12.1 Topics 13 External links 13.1 Economy 13.2 Government 13.3 Culture Etymology and pronunciation Main article: Name of France Originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or "realm of the Franks".[23] Modern France is still named today Francia in Italian and Spanish, while Frankreich in German, Frankrijk in Dutch and Frankrike in Swedish all mean "Land/realm of the Franks". The name of the Franks is related to the English word frank ("free"): the latter stems from the Old French franc ("free, noble, sincere"), ultimately from Medieval Latin francus ("free, exempt from service; freeman, Frank"), a generalisation of the tribal name that emerged as a Late Latin borrowing of the reconstructed Frankish endonym *Frank.[24][25] It has been suggested that the meaning "free" was adopted because, after the conquest of Gaul, only Franks were free of taxation,[26] or more generally because they had the status of freemen in contrast to servants or slaves.[25] The etymology of *Frank is uncertain. It is traditionally derived from the Proto-Germanic word *frankōn, which translates as "javelin" or "lance" (the throwing axe of the Franks was known as the francisca),[27] although these weapons may have been named because of their use by the Franks, not the other way around.[25] In English, 'France' is pronounced /fræns/ FRANSS in American English and /frɑːns/ FRAHNSS or /fræns/ FRANSS in British English. The pronunciation with /ɑː/ is mostly confined to accents with the trap-bath split such as Received Pronunciation, though it can be also heard in some other dialects such as Cardiff English, in which /frɑːns/ is in free variation with /fræns/.[28][29] History Main article: History of France For a chronological guide, see Timeline of French history. Prehistory (before the 6th century BC) Main article: Prehistory of France Lascaux cave paintings: a horse from Dordogne facing right brown on white background One of the Lascaux paintings: a horse – approximately 17,000 BC. Lascaux is famous for its "exceptionally detailed depictions of humans and animals".[30] The oldest traces of human life in what is now France date from approximately 1.8 million years ago.[31] Over the ensuing millennia, humans were confronted by a harsh and variable climate, marked by several glacial periods. Early hominids led a nomadic hunter-gatherer life.[31] France has a large number of decorated caves from the upper Palaeolithic era, including one of the most famous and best-preserved, Lascaux[31] (approximately 18,000 BC). At the end of the last glacial period (10,000 BC), the climate became milder;[31] from approximately 7,000 BC, this part of Western Europe entered the Neolithic era and its inhabitants became sedentary. After strong demographic and agricultural development between the 4th and 3rd millennia, metallurgy appeared at the end of the 3rd millennium, initially working gold, copper and bronze, as well as later iron.[32] France has numerous megalithic sites from the Neolithic period, including the exceptionally dense Carnac stones site (approximately 3,300 BC). Antiquity (6th century BC–5th century AD) Main articles: Gaul, Celts, and Roman Gaul Vercingetorix surrenders to Caesar during the Battle of Alesia. The Gallic defeat in the Gallic Wars secured the Roman conquest of the country. In 600 BC, Ionian Greeks from Phocaea founded the colony of Massalia (present-day Marseille), on the shores of the Mediterranean Sea. This makes it France's oldest city.[33][34] At the same time, some Gallic Celtic tribes penetrated parts of Eastern and Northern France, gradually spreading through the rest of the country between the 5th and 3rd century BC.[35] The concept of Gaul emerged during this period, corresponding to the territories of Celtic settlement ranging between the Rhine, the Atlantic Ocean, the Pyrenees and the Mediterranean. The borders of modern France roughly correspond to ancient Gaul, which was inhabited by Celtic Gauls. Gaul was then a prosperous country, of which the southernmost part was heavily subject to Greek and Roman cultural and economic influences. Maison Carrée temple in Nemausus Corinthian columns and portico The Maison Carrée was a temple of the Gallo-Roman city of Nemausus (present-day Nîmes) and is one of the best-preserved vestiges of the Roman Empire. Around 390 BC, the Gallic chieftain Brennus and his troops made their way to Italy through the Alps, defeated the Romans in the Battle of the Allia, and besieged and ransomed Rome.[36] The Gallic invasion left Rome weakened, and the Gauls continued to harass the region until 345 BC when they entered into a formal peace treaty with Rome.[37] But the Romans and the Gauls would remain adversaries for the next centuries, and the Gauls would continue to be a threat in Italy.[38] Around 125 BC, the south of Gaul was conquered by the Romans, who called this region Provincia Nostra ("Our Province"), which over time evolved into the name Provence in French.[39] Julius Caesar conquered the remainder of Gaul and overcame a revolt carried out by the Gallic chieftain Vercingetorix in 52 BC.[40] Gaul was divided by Augustus into Roman provinces.[41] Many cities were founded during the Gallo-Roman period, including Lugdunum (present-day Lyon), which is considered the capital of the Gauls.[41] These cities were built in traditional Roman style, with a forum, a theatre, a circus, an amphitheatre and thermal baths. The Gauls mixed with Roman settlers and eventually adopted Roman culture and Roman speech (Latin, from which the French language evolved). The Roman polytheism merged with the Gallic paganism into the same syncretism. From the 250s to the 280s AD, Roman Gaul suffered a serious crisis with its fortified borders being attacked on several occasions by barbarians.[42] Nevertheless, the situation improved in the first half of the 4th century, which was a period of revival and prosperity for Roman Gaul.[43] In 312, Emperor Constantine I converted to Christianity. Subsequently, Christians, who had been persecuted until then, increased rapidly across the entire Roman Empire.[44] But, from the beginning of the 5th century, the Barbarian Invasions resumed.[45] Teutonic tribes invaded the region from present-day Germany, the Visigoths settling in the southwest, the Burgundians along the Rhine River Valley, and the Franks (from whom the French take their name) in the north.[46] Early Middle Ages (5th–10th century) Main articles: Francia, Merovingian dynasty, and Carolingian dynasty See also: List of French monarchs and France in the Middle Ages animated gif showing expansion of Franks across Europe Frankish expansion from 481 to 870 At the end of the Antiquity period, ancient Gaul was divided into several Germanic kingdoms and a remaining Gallo-Roman territory, known as the Kingdom of Syagrius. Simultaneously, Celtic Britons, fleeing the Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain, settled the western part of Armorica. As a result, the Armorican peninsula was renamed Brittany, Celtic culture was revived and independent petty kingdoms arose in this region. The first leader to make himself king of all the Franks was Clovis I, who began his reign in 481, routing the last forces of the Roman governors of the province in 486. Clovis claimed that he would be baptised a Christian in the event of his victory against the Visigoths, which was said to have guaranteed the battle. Clovis regained the southwest from the Visigoths, was baptised in 508, and made himself master of what is now western Germany. Clovis I was the first Germanic conqueror after the fall of the Roman Empire to convert to Catholic Christianity, rather than Arianism; thus France was given the title "Eldest daughter of the Church" (French: La fille aînée de l'Église) by the papacy,[47] and French kings would be called "the Most Christian Kings of France" (Rex Christianissimus). painting of Clovis I conversion to Catholicism in 498, a king being baptised in a tub in a cathedral surrounded by bishop and monks With Clovis's conversion to Catholicism in 498, the Frankish monarchy, elective and secular until then, became hereditary and of divine right. The Franks embraced the Christian Gallo-Roman culture and ancient Gaul was eventually renamed Francia ("Land of the Franks"). The Germanic Franks adopted Romanic languages, except in northern Gaul where Roman settlements were less dense and where Germanic languages emerged. Clovis made Paris his capital and established the Merovingian dynasty, but his kingdom would not survive his death. The Franks treated land purely as a private possession and divided it among their heirs, so four kingdoms emerged from Clovis's: Paris, Orléans, Soissons, and Rheims. The last Merovingian kings lost power to their mayors of the palace (head of household). One mayor of the palace, Charles Martel, defeated an Umayyad invasion of Gaul at the Battle of Tours (732) and earned respect and power within the Frankish kingdoms. His son, Pepin the Short, seized the crown of Francia from the weakened Merovingians and founded the Carolingian dynasty. Pepin's son, Charlemagne, reunited the Frankish kingdoms and built a vast empire across Western and Central Europe. Proclaimed Holy Roman Emperor by Pope Leo III and thus establishing in earnest the French Government's longtime historical association with the Catholic Church,[48] Charlemagne tried to revive the Western Roman Empire and its cultural grandeur. Charlemagne's son, Louis I (Emperor 814–840), kept the empire united; however, this Carolingian Empire would not survive his death. In 843, under the Treaty of Verdun, the empire was divided between Louis' three sons, with East Francia going to Louis the German, Middle Francia to Lothair I, and West Francia to Charles the Bald. West Francia approximated the area occupied by–and was the precursor to–modern France.[49] During the 9th and 10th centuries, continually threatened by Viking invasions, France became a very decentralised state: the nobility's titles and lands became hereditary, and the authority of the king became more religious than secular and thus was less effective and constantly challenged by powerful noblemen. Thus was established feudalism in France. Over time, some of the king's vassals would grow so powerful that they often posed a threat to the king. For example, after the Battle of Hastings in 1066, William the Conqueror added "King of England" to his titles, becoming both the vassal to (as Duke of Normandy) and the equal of (as king of England) the king of France, creating recurring tensions. High and Late Middle Ages (10th–15th century) Main articles: Kingdom of France, Capetian dynasty, Valois dynasty, and Bourbon dynasty See also: List of French monarchs and France in the Middle Ages Joan of Arc led the French army to several important victories during the Hundred Years' War (1337–1453), which paved the way for the final victory. animated gif showing changes in French borders Metropolitan France territorial evolution from 985 to 1947 The Carolingian dynasty ruled France until 987, when Hugh Capet, Duke of France and Count of Paris, was crowned King of the Franks.[50] His descendants—the Capetians, the House of Valois and the House of Bourbon—progressively unified the country through wars and dynastic inheritance into the Kingdom of France, which was fully declared in 1190 by Philip II of France (Philippe Auguste). Later kings would expand their directly possessed domaine royal to cover over half of modern continental France by the 15th century, including most of the north, centre and west of France. During this process, the royal authority became more and more assertive, centred on a hierarchically conceived society distinguishing nobility, clergy, and commoners. The French nobility played a prominent role in most Crusades to restore Christian access to the Holy Land. French knights made up the bulk of the steady flow of reinforcements throughout the two-hundred-year span of the Crusades, in such a fashion that the Arabs uniformly referred to the crusaders as Franj caring little whether they really came from France.[51] The French Crusaders also imported the French language into the Levant, making French the base of the lingua franca (lit. "Frankish language") of the Crusader states.[51] French knights also made up the majority in both the Hospital and the Temple orders. The latter, in particular, held numerous properties throughout France and by the 13th century were the principal bankers for the French crown, until Philip IV annihilated the order in 1307. The Albigensian Crusade was launched in 1209 to eliminate the heretical Cathars in the southwestern area of modern-day France. In the end, the Cathars were exterminated and the autonomous County of Toulouse was annexed into the crown lands of France.[52] From the 11th century, the House of Plantagenet, the rulers of the County of Anjou, succeeded in establishing its dominion over the surrounding provinces of Maine and Touraine, then progressively built an "empire" that spanned from England to the Pyrenees and covering half of modern France. Tensions between the kingdom of France and the Plantagenet empire would last a hundred years, until Philip II of France conquered, between 1202 and 1214, most of the continental possessions of the empire, leaving England and Aquitaine to the Plantagenets. Charles IV the Fair died without an heir in 1328.[53] Under the rules of the Salic law the crown of France could not pass to a woman nor could the line of kingship pass through the female line.[53] Accordingly, the crown passed to Philip of Valois, rather than through the female line to Edward of Plantagenet, who would soon become Edward III of England. During the reign of Philip of Valois, the French monarchy reached the height of its medieval power.[53] However Philip's seat on the throne was contested by Edward III of England in 1337, and England and France entered the off-and-on Hundred Years' War.[54] The exact boundaries changed greatly with time, but landholdings inside France by the English Kings remained extensive for decades. With charismatic leaders, such as Joan of Arc and La Hire, strong French counterattacks won back most English continental territories. Like the rest of Europe, France was struck by the Black Death due to which half of the 17 million population of France died.[55][56] Early modern period (15th century–1789) Main articles: French Renaissance, Early modern France, and Ancien Régime The Château de Chenonceau, nowadays part of a UNESCO World Heritage Site, was built in the early 16th century. The French Renaissance saw a spectacular cultural development and the first standardisation of the French language, which would become the official language of France and the language of Europe's aristocracy. It also saw a long set of wars, known as the Italian Wars, between France and the House of Habsburg. French explorers, such as Jacques Cartier or Samuel de Champlain, claimed lands in the Americas for France, paving the way for the expansion of the First French colonial empire. The rise of Protestantism in Europe led France to a civil war known as the French Wars of Religion, where, in the most notorious incident, thousands of Huguenots were murdered in the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre of 1572.[57] The Wars of Religion were ended by Henry IV's Edict of Nantes, which granted some freedom of religion to the Huguenots. Spanish troops, the terror of Western Europe,[58] assisted the Catholic side during the Wars of Religion in 1589–1594, and invaded northern France in 1597; after some skirmishing in the 1620s and 1630s, Spain and France returned to all-out war between 1635 and 1659. The war cost France 300,000 casualties.[59] Under Louis XIII, the energetic Cardinal Richelieu promoted the centralisation of the state and reinforced the royal power by disarming domestic power holders in the 1620s. He systematically destroyed castles of defiant lords and denounced the use of private violence (duelling, carrying weapons and maintaining private armies). By the end of the 1620s, Richelieu established "the royal monopoly of force" as the doctrine.[60] During Louis XIV's minority and the regency of Queen Anne and Cardinal Mazarin, a period of trouble known as the Fronde occurred in France. This rebellion was driven by the great feudal lords and sovereign courts as a reaction to the rise of royal absolute power in France. Louis XIV of France standing in plate armour and blue sash facing left holding baton Louis XIV, the "Sun King", was the absolute monarch of France and made France the leading European power. The monarchy reached its peak during the 17th century and the reign of Louis XIV (1643–1715). By turning powerful feudal lords into courtiers at the Palace of Versailles, Louis XIV's personal power became unchallenged. Remembered for his numerous wars, he made France the leading European power. France became the most populous country in Europe and had tremendous influence over European politics, economy, and culture. French became the most-used language in diplomacy, science, literature and international affairs, and remained so until the 20th century.[61] France obtained many overseas possessions in the Americas, Africa and Asia. Louis XIV also revoked the Edict of Nantes, forcing thousands of Huguenots into exile. Under the wars of Louis XV (r. 1715–1774), France lost New France and most of its Indian possessions after its defeat in the Seven Years' War (1756–1763). Its European territory kept growing, however, with notable acquisitions such as Lorraine (1766) and Corsica (1770). An unpopular king, Louis XV's weak rule, his ill-advised financial, political and military decisions – as well as the debauchery of his court– discredited the monarchy, which arguably paved the way for the French Revolution 15 years after his death.[62][63] Louis XVI (r. 1774–1793), actively supported the Americans with money, fleets and armies, helping them win independence from Great Britain. France gained revenge but spent so heavily that the government verged on bankruptcy—a factor that contributed to the French Revolution. Some of the Enlightenment occurred in French intellectual circles, and major scientific breakthroughs and inventions, such as the discovery of oxygen (1778) and the first hot air balloon carrying passengers (1783), were achieved by French scientists. French explorers, such as Bougainville and Lapérouse, took part in the voyages of scientific exploration through maritime expeditions around the globe. The Enlightenment philosophy, in which reason is advocated as the primary source for legitimacy, undermined the power of and support for the monarchy and also was a factor in the French Revolution. Revolutionary France (1789–1799) Main articles: History of France § Revolutionary France (1789–1799), and French Revolution Ouverture des États généraux à Versailles, 5 mai 1789 by Auguste Couder drawing of the Storming of the Bastille on 14 July 1789, smoke of gunfire enveloping stone castle The Storming of the Bastille on 14 July 1789 was the most emblematic event of the French Revolution. Facing financial troubles, King Louis XVI summoned the Estates-General (gathering the three Estates of the realm) in May 1789 to propose solutions to his government. As it came to an impasse, the representatives of the Third Estate formed into a National Assembly, signalling the outbreak of the French Revolution. Fearing that the king would suppress the newly created National Assembly, insurgents stormed the Bastille on 14 July 1789, a date which would become France's National Day. In early August 1789, the National Constituent Assembly abolished the privileges of the nobility such as personal serfdom and exclusive hunting rights. Through the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (27 August 1789) France established fundamental rights for men. The Declaration affirms "the natural and imprescriptible rights of man" to "liberty, property, security and resistance to oppression". Freedom of speech and press were declared, and arbitrary arrests were outlawed. It called for the destruction of aristocratic privileges and proclaimed freedom and equal rights for all men, as well as access to public office based on talent rather than birth. In November 1789, the Assembly decided to nationalise and sell all property of the Catholic Church which had been the largest landowner in the country. In July 1790, a Civil Constitution of the Clergy reorganised the French Catholic Church, cancelling the authority of the Church to levy taxes, et cetera. This fueled much discontent in parts of France, which would contribute to the civil war breaking out some years later. While King Louis XVI still enjoyed popularity among the population, his disastrous flight to Varennes (June 1791) seemed to justify rumours he had tied his hopes of political salvation to the prospects of foreign invasion. His credibility was so deeply undermined that the abolition of the monarchy and establishment of a republic became an increasing possibility. In August 1791, the Emperor of Austria and the King of Prussia in the Declaration of Pillnitz threatened revolutionary France to intervene by force of arms to restore the French absolute monarchy. In September 1791, the National Constituent Assembly forced King Louis XVI to accept the French Constitution of 1791, thus turning the French absolute monarchy into a constitutional monarchy. In the newly established Legislative Assembly (October 1791), enmity developed and deepened between a group, later called the 'Girondins', who favoured war with Austria and Prussia, and a group later called 'Montagnards' or 'Jacobins', who opposed such a war. A majority in the Assembly in 1792 however saw a war with Austria and Prussia as a chance to boost the popularity of the revolutionary government and thought that France would win a war against those gathered monarchies. On 20 April 1792, therefore, they declared war on Austria. Le Serment du Jeu de paume by Jacques-Louis David, 1791 On 10 August 1792, an angry crowd threatened the palace of King Louis XVI, who took refuge in the Legislative Assembly.[64][65] A Prussian Army invaded France later in August 1792. In early September, Parisians, infuriated by the Prussian Army capturing Verdun and counter-revolutionary uprisings in the west of France, murdered between 1,000 and 1,500 prisoners by raiding the Parisian prisons. The Assembly and the Paris City Council seemed unable to stop that bloodshed.[64][66] The National Convention, chosen in the first elections under male universal suffrage,[64] on 20 September 1792 succeeded the Legislative Assembly and on 21 September abolished the monarchy by proclaiming the French First Republic. Ex-King Louis XVI was convicted of treason and guillotined in January 1793. France had declared war on Great Britain and the Dutch Republic in November 1792 and did the same on Spain in March 1793; in the spring of 1793, Austria and Prussia invaded France; in March, France created a "sister republic" in the "Republic of Mainz", and kept it under control. Also in March 1793, the civil war of the Vendée against Paris started, evoked by both the Civil Constitution of the Clergy of 1790 and the nationwide army conscription early 1793; elsewhere in France rebellion was brewing too. A factionalist feud in the National Convention, smouldering ever since October 1791, came to a climax with the group of the 'Girondins' on 2 June 1793 being forced to resign and leave the convention. The counter-revolution, begun in March 1793 in the Vendée, by July had spread to Brittany, Normandy, Bordeaux, Marseilles, Toulon, and Lyon. Paris' Convention government between October and December 1793 with brutal measures managed to subdue most internal uprisings, at the cost of tens of thousands of lives. Some historians consider the civil war to have lasted until 1796 with a toll of possibly 450,000 lives.[67][68] By the end of 1793 the allies had been driven from France. France in February 1794 abolished slavery in its American colonies, but would reintroduce it later. Political disagreements and enmity in the National Convention between October 1793 and July 1794 reached unprecedented levels, leading to dozens of Convention members being sentenced to death and guillotined. Meanwhile, France's external wars in 1794 were going prosperous, for example in Belgium. In 1795, the government seemed to return to indifference towards the desires and needs of the lower classes concerning freedom of (Catholic) religion and fair distribution of food. Until 1799, politicians, apart from inventing a new parliamentary system (the 'Directory'), busied themselves with dissuading the people from Catholicism and from royalism. Napoleon and 19th century (1799–1914) Main articles: History of France § Napoleonic France (1799–1815); History of France § Long 19th century, 1815–1914; First French Empire; Second French Empire; and French colonial empire See also: France in the 19th century and France in the 20th century painting of Napoleon in 1806 standing with hand in vest attended by staff and Imperial guard regiment Napoleon, Emperor of the French, built a vast empire across Europe. His conquests spread the ideals of the French Revolution across much of the continent, such as popular sovereignty, equality before the law, republicanism and administrative reorganisation while his legal reforms had a major impact worldwide. Nationalism, especially in Germany, emerged in reaction against him.[69] Napoleon Bonaparte seized control of the Republic in 1799 becoming First Consul and later Emperor of the French Empire (1804–1814; 1815). As a continuation of the wars sparked by the European monarchies against the French Republic, changing sets of European Coalitions declared wars on Napoleon's Empire. His armies conquered most of continental Europe with swift victories such as the battles of Jena-Auerstadt or Austerlitz. Members of the Bonaparte family were appointed as monarchs in some of the newly established kingdoms.[70] These victories led to the worldwide expansion of French revolutionary ideals and reforms, such as the metric system, the Napoleonic Code and the Declaration of the Rights of Man. In June 1812, Napoleon attacked Russia, reaching Moscow. Thereafter his army disintegrated through supply problems, disease, Russian attacks, and finally winter. After the catastrophic Russian campaign, and the ensuing uprising of European monarchies against his rule, Napoleon was defeated and the Bourbon monarchy restored. About a million Frenchmen died during the Napoleonic Wars.[70] After his brief return from exile, Napoleon was finally defeated in 1815 at the Battle of Waterloo, the monarchy was re-established (1815–1830), with new constitutional limitations. The discredited Bourbon dynasty was overthrown by the July Revolution of 1830, which established the constitutional July Monarchy. In that year, French troops began the conquest of Algeria, establishing the first colonial presence in Africa since Napoleon's abortive invasion of Egypt in 1798. In 1848, general unrest led to the February Revolution and the end of the July Monarchy. The abolition of slavery and introduction of male universal suffrage, which were briefly enacted during the French Revolution, were re-enacted in 1848. In 1852, the president of the French Republic, Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte, Napoleon I's nephew, was proclaimed emperor of the Second Empire, as Napoleon III. He multiplied French interventions abroad, especially in Crimea, in Mexico and Italy which resulted in the annexation of the Duchy of Savoy and the County of Nice, then part of the Kingdom of Sardinia. Napoleon III was unseated following defeat in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870 and his regime was replaced by the Third Republic. By 1875, the French conquest of Algeria was complete, and approximately 825,000 Algerians had been killed from famine, disease, and violence.[71] animated gif of French colonial territory on world map Animated map of the growth and decline of the French colonial empire France had colonial possessions, in various forms, since the beginning of the 17th century, but in the 19th and 20th centuries, its global overseas colonial empire extended greatly and became the second-largest in the world behind the British Empire.[15] Including metropolitan France, the total area of land under French sovereignty almost reached 13 million square kilometres in the 1920s and 1930s, 8.6% of the world's land. Known as the Belle Époque, the turn of the century was a period characterised by optimism, regional peace, economic prosperity and technological, scientific and cultural innovations. In 1905, state secularism was officially established. Early to mid-20th century (1914–1946) Main article: History of France (1900 to present) French Poilus posing with their war-torn flag in 1917, during World War I France was invaded by Germany and defended by Great Britain to start World War I in August 1914. A rich industrial area in the northeast was occupied. France and the Allies emerged victorious against the Central Powers at a tremendous human and material cost. World War I left 1.4 million French soldiers dead, 4% of its population.[72] Between 27 and 30% of soldiers conscripted from 1912 to 1915 were killed.[73] The interbellum years were marked by intense international tensions and a variety of social reforms introduced by the Popular Front government (annual leave, eight-hour workdays, women in government). In 1940, France was invaded and quickly defeated by Nazi Germany. France was divided into a German occupation zone in the north, an Italian occupation zone in the southeast and an unoccupied territory, the rest of France, which consisted of the southern French metropolitan territory (two-fifths of pre-war metropolitan France) and the French empire, which included the two protectorates of French Tunisia and French Morocco, and French Algeria; the Vichy government, a newly established authoritarian regime collaborating with Germany, ruled the unoccupied territory. Free France, the government-in-exile led by Charles de Gaulle, was set up in London.[full citation needed] From 1942 to 1944, about 160,000 French citizens, including around 75,000 Jews,[74][75][76] were deported to death camps and concentration camps in Germany and occupied Poland.[77] In September 1943, Corsica was the first French metropolitan territory to liberate itself from the Axis. On 6 June 1944, the Allies invaded Normandy and in August they invaded Provence. Over the following year the Allies and the French Resistance emerged victorious over the Axis powers and French sovereignty was restored with the establishment of the Provisional Government of the French Republic (GPRF). This interim government, established by de Gaulle, aimed to continue to wage war against Germany and to purge collaborators from office. It also made several important reforms (suffrage extended to women, creation of a social security system). Contemporary period (1946–present) Charles de Gaulle seated in uniform looking left with folded arms Charles de Gaulle took an active part in many major events of the 20th century: a hero of World War I, leader of the Free French during World War II, he then became President, where he facilitated decolonisation, maintained France as a major power and overcame the revolt of May 1968. The GPRF laid the groundwork for a new constitutional order that resulted in the Fourth Republic (1946–1958), which saw spectacular economic growth (les Trente Glorieuses). France was one of the founding members of NATO (1949). France attempted to regain control of French Indochina but was defeated by the Viet Minh in 1954 at the climactic Battle of Dien Bien Phu. Only months later, France faced another anti-colonialist conflict in Algeria, then treated as an integral part of France and home to over one million European settlers. During the conflict, the French systematically used torture and repression, including extrajudicial killings in an effort to keep control of Algeria.[78][79] This conflict wracked the country and nearly led to a coup and civil war in France.[80] During the May 1958 crisis, the weak and unstable Fourth Republic gave way to the Fifth Republic, which included a strengthened Presidency.[81] In the latter role, Charles de Gaulle managed to keep the country together while taking steps to end the Algerian War. The war was concluded with the Évian Accords in 1962 that led to Algerian independence. Algerian independence came at a high price: it resulted in between half a million and one million deaths and over 2 million internally displaced Algerians.[82][83][84] Around one million Pied-Noirs and Harkis fled from Algeria to France upon independence.[85] A vestige of the colonial empire are the French overseas departments and territories. The May 68 protests, a massive social movement, would ultimately led to many social changes, such as the right to abortion, women empowerment as well as the decriminalisation of homosexuality.[86][87] In the context of the Cold War, De Gaulle pursued a policy of "national independence" towards the Western and Eastern blocs. To this end, he withdrew from NATO's military integrated command (while remaining in the NATO alliance itself), launched a nuclear development programme and made France the fourth nuclear power. He restored cordial Franco-German relations to create a European counterweight between the American and Soviet spheres of influence. However, he opposed any development of a supranational Europe, favouring a Europe of sovereign nations. In the wake of the series of worldwide protests of 1968, the revolt of May 1968 had an enormous social impact. In France, it was the watershed moment when a conservative moral ideal (religion, patriotism, respect for authority) shifted towards a more liberal moral ideal (secularism, individualism, sexual revolution). Although the revolt was a political failure (as the Gaullist party emerged even stronger than before) it announced a split between the French people and de Gaulle who resigned shortly after.[88] In the post-Gaullist era, France remained one of the most developed economies in the world, but faced several economic crises that resulted in high unemployment rates and increasing public debt. In the late 20th and early 21st centuries France has been at the forefront of the development of a supranational European Union, notably by signing the Maastricht Treaty (which created the European Union) in 1992, establishing the Eurozone in 1999 and signing the Lisbon Treaty in 2007.[89] France has also gradually but fully reintegrated into NATO and has since participated in most NATO sponsored wars.[90] Place de la République statue column with large French flag Republican marches were organised across France after the January 2015 attacks perpetrated by Islamist terrorists; they became the largest public rallies in French history. Since the 19th century, France has received many immigrants. These have been mostly male foreign workers from European Catholic countries who generally returned home when not employed.[91] During the 1970s France faced economic crisis and allowed new immigrants (mostly from the Maghreb)[91] to permanently settle in France with their families and to acquire French citizenship. It resulted in hundreds of thousands of Muslims (especially in the larger cities) living in subsidised public housing and suffering from very high unemployment rates.[92] Simultaneously France renounced the assimilation of immigrants, where they were expected to adhere to French traditional values and cultural norms. They were encouraged to retain their distinctive cultures and traditions and required merely to integrate.[93] Since the 1995 Paris Métro and RER bombings, France has been sporadically targeted by Islamist organisations, notably the Charlie Hebdo attack in January 2015 which provoked the largest public rallies in French history, gathering 4.4 million people,[94][95] the November 2015 Paris attacks which resulted in 130 deaths, the deadliest attack on French soil since World War II[96][97] and the deadliest in the European Union since the Madrid train bombings in 2004,[98] as well as the 2016 Nice truck attack, which caused 87 deaths during Bastille Day celebrations. Opération Chammal, France's military efforts to contain ISIS, killed over 1,000 ISIS troops between 2014 and 2015.[99][100] Geography Main article: Geography of France Location and borders see description A relief map of Metropolitan France, showing cities with over 100,000 inhabitants Panorama of Mont Blanc mountain range above grey clouds under a blue sky Mont Blanc, the highest summit in Western Europe, marks the border with Italy. The vast majority of France's territory and population is situated in Western Europe and is called Metropolitan France, to distinguish it from the country's various overseas polities. It is bordered by the North Sea in the north, the English Channel in the northwest, the Atlantic Ocean in the west and the Mediterranean sea in the southeast. Its land borders consist of Belgium and Luxembourg in the northeast, Germany and Switzerland in the east, Italy and Monaco in the southeast, and Andorra and Spain in the south and southwest. Except for the northeast, most of France's land borders are roughly delineated by natural boundaries and geographic features: to the south and southeast, the Pyrenees and the Alps and the Jura, respectively, and to the east, the Rhine river. Due to its shape, France is often referred to as l'Hexagone ("The Hexagon"). Metropolitan France includes various coastal islands, of which the largest is Corsica. Metropolitan France is situated mostly between latitudes 41° and 51° N, and longitudes 6° W and 10° E, on the western edge of Europe, and thus lies within the northern temperate zone. Its continental part covers about 1000 km from north to south and from east to west. France has several overseas regions across the world, which are organised as follows: five have exactly the same status as mainland France's regions and departments: French Guiana in South America; Guadeloupe in the Caribbean; Martinique in the Caribbean; Mayotte in the Indian Ocean, off the coast of East Africa; Réunion in the Indian Ocean, off the coast of East Africa. nine have special legal status distinct from mainland France's regions and departments: In the Atlantic Ocean: Saint Pierre and Miquelon and, in the Antilles: Saint Martin and Saint Barthélemy. In the Pacific Ocean: French Polynesia, the special collectivity of New Caledonia, Wallis and Futuna and Clipperton Island. In the Indian Ocean: Kerguelen Islands, Crozet Islands, St. Paul and Amsterdam islands, and the Scattered Islands in the Indian Ocean In the Antarctic: Adélie Land. France has land borders with Brazil and Suriname via French Guiana and with the Kingdom of the Netherlands through the French portion of Saint Martin. Metropolitan France covers 551,500 square kilometres (212,935 sq mi),[101] the largest among European Union members.[22] France's total land area, with its overseas departments and territories (excluding Adélie Land), is 643,801 km2 (248,573 sq mi), 0.45% of the total land area on Earth. France possesses a wide variety of landscapes, from coastal plains in the north and west to mountain ranges of the Alps in the southeast, the Massif Central in the south central and Pyrenees in the southwest. Due to its numerous overseas departments and territories scattered across the planet, France possesses the second-largest Exclusive economic zone (EEZ) in the world, covering 11,035,000 km2 (4,261,000 sq mi), just behind the EEZ of the United States, which covers 11,351,000 km2 (4,383,000 sq mi), but ahead of the EEZ of Australia, which covers 8,148,250 km2 (3,146,000 sq mi). Its EEZ covers approximately 8% of the total surface of all the EEZs of the world. Geology, topography and hydrography Geological formations near Roussillon, Vaucluse Metropolitan France has a wide variety of topographical sets and natural landscapes. Large parts of the current territory of France were raised during several tectonic episodes like the Hercynian uplift in the Paleozoic Era, during which the Armorican Massif, the Massif Central, the Morvan, the Vosges and Ardennes ranges and the island of Corsica were formed. These massifs delineate several sedimentary basins such as the Aquitaine basin in the southwest and the Paris basin in the north, the latter including several areas of particularly fertile ground such as the silt beds of Beauce and Brie. Various routes of natural passage, such as the Rhône Valley, allow easy communication. The Alpine, Pyrenean and Jura mountains are much younger and have less eroded forms. At 4,810.45 metres (15,782 ft)[102] above sea level, Mont Blanc, located in the Alps on the French and Italian border, is the highest point in Western Europe. Although 60% of municipalities are classified as having seismic risks, these risks remain moderate. Reed bed on the Gironde estuary, the largest estuary in Western Europe The coastlines offer contrasting landscapes: mountain ranges along the French Riviera, coastal cliffs such as the Côte d'Albâtre, and wide sandy plains in the Languedoc. Corsica lies off the Mediterranean coast. France has an extensive river system consisting of the four major rivers Seine, the Loire, the Garonne, the Rhône and their tributaries, whose combined catchment includes over 62% of the metropolitan territory. The Rhône divides the Massif Central from the Alps and flows into the Mediterranean Sea at the Camargue. The Garonne meets the Dordogne just after Bordeaux, forming the Gironde estuary, the largest estuary in Western Europe which after approximately 100 kilometres (62 mi) empties into the Atlantic Ocean.[103] Other water courses drain towards the Meuse and Rhine along the north-eastern borders. France has 11 million square kilometres (4.2×106 sq mi) of marine waters within three oceans under its jurisdiction, of which 97% are overseas. Climate Köppen climate classification map of Metropolitan France The French metropolitan territory is relatively large, so the climate is not uniform, giving rise to the following climate nuances: • The hot-summer mediterranean climate (Csa) is found along the Gulf of Lion. Summers are hot and dry, while winters are mild and wet. Cities affected by this climate: Arles, Avignon, Fréjus, Hyères, Marseille, Menton, Montpellier, Nice, Perpignan, Toulon. • The warm-summer mediterranean climate (Csb) is found in the northern part of Brittany. Summers are warm and dry, while winters are cool and wet. Cities affected by this climate: Belle Île, Saint-Brieuc. • The humid subtropical climate (Cfa) is found in the Garonne and Rhône's inland plains. Summers are hot and wet, while winters are cool and damp. Cities affected by this climate: Albi, Carcassonne, Lyon, Orange, Toulouse, Valence. • The oceanic climate (Cfb) is found around the coasts of the Bay of Biscay, and a little bit inland. Summers are pleasantly warm and wet, while winters are cool and damp. Cities affected by this climate: Amiens, Biarritz, Bordeaux, Brest, Cherbourg-en-Cotentin, Dunkirk, Lille, Nantes, Orléans, Paris, Reims, Tours. • The degraded oceanic climate (degraded-Cfb) is found in the interior plains and in the intra-alpine valleys, far from the ocean (or sea). Summers are hot and wet, while winters are cold and gloomy. Cities affected by this climate: Annecy, Besançon, Bourges, Chambéry, Clermont-Ferrand, Colmar, Dijon, Grenoble, Langres, Metz, Mulhouse, Nancy, Strasbourg. • The subalpine oceanic climate (Cfc) is found at the foot of all the mountainous regions of France. Summers are short, cool and wet, while winters are moderately cold and damp. No major cities are affected by this climate. • The warm-summer mediterranean continental climate (Dsb) is found in all the mountainous regions of Southern France between 700 and 1,400 metres a.s.l. Summers are pleasantly warm and dry, while winters are very cold and snowy. City affected by this climate: Barcelonnette. • The cool-summer mediterranean continental climate (Dsc) is found in all the mountainous regions of Southern France between 1,400 and 2,100 metres a.s.l. Summers are cool, short and dry, while winters are very cold and snowy. Place affected by this climate: Isola 2000. • The warm-summer humid continental climate (Dfb) is found in all the mountainous regions of the Northern half of France between 500 and 1,000 metres a.s.l. Summers are pleasantly warm and wet, while winters are very cold and snowy. Cities affected by this climate: Chamonix, Mouthe. In January 1985, in Mouthe, the temperature has dropped under −41 °C. • The subalpine climate (Dfc) is found in all the mountainous regions of the northern half of France between 1,000 and 2,000 metres a.s.l. Summers are cool, short and wet, while winters are very cold and snowy. Places affected by this climate: Cauterets Courchevel, Alpe d'Huez, Les 2 Alpes, Peyragudes, Val-Thorens. • The alpine tundra climate (ET) is found in all the mountainous regions of France, generally above 2,000 or 2,500 metres a.s.l. Summers are chilly and wet, while winters are extremely cold, long and snowy. Mountains affected by this climate: Aiguilles-Rouges, Aravis, the top of Crêt de la neige (rare, altitude 1,718 m) and the top of Grand-Ballon (rare, altitude 1,423 m). • The ice cap climate (EF) is found in all the mountainous regions of France that have a glacier. Summers are cold and wet, while winters are extremely cold, long and snowy. Mountains affected by this climate: Aiguille du midi, Barre des Écrins, Belledonne, Grand-Casse, Mont Blanc (4,810 m), Pic du Midi de Bigorre. • In the overseas regions, there are three broad types of climate: A tropical climate (Am) in most overseas regions including eastern French Guiana: high constant temperature throughout the year with a dry and a wet season. An equatorial climate (Af) in western French Guiana: high constant temperature with even precipitation throughout the year. A subpolar oceanic climate (Cfc), characterised by mild, wet summers and cool, but generally not cold, damp winters. Cities or places affected by this climate: Port-aux-Français, Saint-Pierre-et-Miquelon. An ice cap climate (EF): extremely cold year-round in Adélie Land. Climate change in France includes above average heating.[104] Environment See also: List of national parks of France and Regional natural parks of France color map showing Regional natural parks of France Marine (blue), regional (green) and national (red) parks in France (2019) France was one of the first countries to create an environment ministry, in 1971.[105] Although it is one of the most industrialised countries in the world, France is ranked only 19th by carbon dioxide emissions, behind less populous nations such as Canada or Australia. This is due to the country's heavy investment in nuclear power following the 1973 oil crisis,[106] which now accounts for 75 percent of its electricity production[107] and results in less pollution.[108][109] According to the 2020 Environmental Performance Index conducted by Yale and Columbia, France was the fifth-most environmentally-conscious country in the world (behind United Kingdom).[110][111] Like all European Union state members, France agreed to cut carbon emissions by at least 20% of 1990 levels by 2020,[112] compared to the United States plan to reduce emissions by 4% of 1990 levels.[113] As of 2009, French carbon dioxide emissions per capita were lower than that of China's.[114] The country was set to impose a carbon tax in 2009 at 17 euros per tonne of carbon emitted,[115] which would have raised 4 billion euros of revenue annually.[116] However, the plan was abandoned due to fears of burdening French businesses.[117] Forests account for 31 percent of France's land area—the fourth-highest proportion in Europe—representing an increase of 7 percent since 1990.[118][119][120] French forests are some of the most diverse in Europe, comprising more than 140 species of trees.[121] France had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 4.52/10, ranking it 123rd globally out of 172 countries.[122] There are nine national parks[123] and 46 natural parks in France,[124] with the government planning to convert 20% of its Exclusive economic zone into a Marine protected area by 2020.[125] A regional nature park[126] (French: parc naturel régional or PNR) is a public establishment in France between local authorities and the national government covering an inhabited rural area of outstanding beauty, to protect the scenery and heritage as well as setting up sustainable economic development in the area.[127] A PNR sets goals and guidelines for managed human habitation, sustainable economic development and protection of the natural environment based on each park's unique landscape and heritage. The parks foster ecological research programmes and public education in the natural sciences.[128] As of 2019 there are 54 PNRs in France.[129] Administrative divisions Main article: Administrative divisions of France The French Republic is divided into 18 regions (located in Europe and overseas), five overseas collectivities, one overseas territory, one special collectivity – New Caledonia and one uninhabited island directly under the authority of the Minister of Overseas France – Clipperton. Regions Hauts-de- FranceNormandyÎle-de- FranceGrand EstBourgogne- Franche- ComtéCentre- Val de LoirePays de la LoireBrittanyNouvelle- AquitaineAuvergne- Rhône-AlpesOccitaniaProvence- Alpes- Côte d'AzurCorsicaFrench GuianaGuadeloupeMartiniqueMayotteRéunionBelgiumLuxembourgGermanySwitzerlandItalyUnited KingdomAndorraBrazilSurinameSpainChannelBay of BiscayLigurian SeaMediterranean Sea Since 2016, France is mainly divided into 18 administrative regions: 13 regions in metropolitan France (including the territorial collectivity of Corsica),[130] and five located overseas.[101] The regions are further subdivided into 101 departments,[131] which are numbered mainly alphabetically. This number is used in postal codes and was formerly used on French vehicle number plates. Among the 101 departments of France, five (French Guiana, Guadeloupe, Martinique, Mayotte, and Réunion) are in overseas regions (ROMs) that are also simultaneously overseas departments (DOMs), enjoy exactly the same status as metropolitan departments and are an integral part of the European Union. The 101 departments are subdivided into 335 arrondissements, which are, in turn, subdivided into 2,054 cantons.[132] These cantons are then divided into 36,658 communes, which are municipalities with an elected municipal council.[132] Three communes—Paris, Lyon and Marseille—are subdivided into 45 municipal arrondissements. The regions, departments and communes are all known as territorial collectivities, meaning they possess local assemblies as well as an executive. Arrondissements and cantons are merely administrative divisions. However, this was not always the case. Until 1940, the arrondissements were territorial collectivities with an elected assembly, but these were suspended by the Vichy regime and definitely abolished by the Fourth Republic in 1946. Overseas territories and collectivities In addition to the 18 regions and 101 departments, the French Republic has five overseas collectivities (French Polynesia, Saint Barthélemy, Saint Martin, Saint Pierre and Miquelon, and Wallis and Futuna), one sui generis collectivity (New Caledonia), one overseas territory (French Southern and Antarctic Lands), and one island possession in the Pacific Ocean (Clipperton Island). Overseas collectivities and territories form part of the French Republic, but do not form part of the European Union or its fiscal area (with the exception of St. Bartelemy, which seceded from Guadeloupe in 2007). The Pacific Collectivities (COMs) of French Polynesia, Wallis and Futuna, and New Caledonia continue to use the CFP franc[133] whose value is strictly linked to that of the euro. In contrast, the five overseas regions used the French franc and now use the euro.[134] diagram of the overseas territories of France showing map shapes The lands making up the French Republic, shown at the same geographic scale Name Constitutional status Capital  Clipperton Island State private property under the direct authority of the French government Uninhabited  French Polynesia Designated as an overseas land (pays d'outre-mer or POM), the status is the same as an overseas collectivity. Papeete  French Southern and Antarctic Lands Overseas territory (territoire d'outre-mer or TOM) Port-aux-Français  New Caledonia Sui generis collectivity Nouméa  Saint Barthélemy Overseas collectivity (collectivité d'outre-mer or COM) Gustavia  Saint Martin Overseas collectivity (collectivité d'outre-mer or COM) Marigot  Saint Pierre and Miquelon Overseas collectivity (collectivité d'outre-mer or COM). Still referred to as a collectivité territoriale. Saint-Pierre  Wallis and Futuna Overseas collectivity (collectivité d'outre-mer or COM). Still referred to as a territoire. Mata-Utu Government and politics Main article: Politics of France Government Emmanuel Macron (2019-10-09) 03 (cropped).jpg Informal_meeting_of_energy_and_transport_ministers_(TTE)._Arrivals,_transport_ministers_Elisabeth_Borne_(37190062412)_(cropped) Emmanuel Macron President Élisabeth Borne Prime Minister France is a representative democracy organised as a unitary, semi-presidential republic.[135] As one of the earliest republics of the modern world, democratic traditions and values are deeply rooted in French culture, identity and politics.[136] The Constitution of the Fifth Republic was approved by referendum on 28 September 1958, establishing a framework consisting of executive, legislative and judicial branches.[137] It sought to address the instability of the Third and Fourth Republics by combining elements of both parliamentary and presidential systems, whilst greatly strengthening the authority of the executive relative to the legislature.[136] Official logo of the French Republic The executive branch has two leaders. The President of the Republic, currently Emmanuel Macron, is the head of state, elected directly by universal adult suffrage for a five-year term.[138] The Prime Minister, currently Élisabeth Borne, is the head of government, appointed by the President of the Republic to lead the Government of France. The President has the power to dissolve Parliament or circumvent it by submitting referendums directly to the people; the President also appoints judges and civil servants, negotiates and ratifies international agreements, as well as serves as commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces. The Prime Minister determines public policy and oversees the civil service, with an emphasis on domestic matters.[139] In the 2022 presidential election president Macron was re—elected.[140] The National Assembly is the lower house of the French Parliament. The legislature consists of the French Parliament, a bicameral body comprising a lower house, the National Assembly (Assemblée nationale) and an upper house, the Senate.[141] Legislators in the National Assembly, known as députés, represent local constituencies and are directly elected for five-year terms.[142] The Assembly has the power to dismiss the government by majority vote. Senators are chosen by an electoral college for six-year terms, with half the seats submitted to election every three years.[143] The Senate's legislative powers are limited; in the event of disagreement between the two chambers, the National Assembly has the final say.[144] The parliament is responsible for determining the rules and principles concerning most areas of law, political amnesty, and fiscal policy; however, the government may draft the specific details concerning most laws. Until World War II, Radicals were a strong political force in France, embodied by the Republican, Radical and Radical-Socialist Party which was the most important party of the Third Republic. Since World War II, they were marginalised while French politics became characterised by two politically opposed groupings: one left-wing, centred on the French Section of the Workers' International and its successor the Socialist Party (since 1969); and the other right-wing, centred on the Gaullist Party, whose name changed over time to the Rally of the French People (1947), the Union of Democrats for the Republic (1958), the Rally for the Republic (1976), the Union for a Popular Movement (2007) and The Republicans (since 2015). In the 2017 presidential and legislative elections, radical centrist party La République En Marche! (LREM) became the dominant force, overtaking both Socialists and Republicans. LREM’s main opponent in both the 2017 and 2022 elections has been the growing far-right party National Rally. The electorate is constitutionally empowered to vote on amendments passed by the Parliament and bills submitted by the president. Referendums have played a key role in shaping French politics and even foreign policy; voters have decided on such matters as Algeria's independence, the election of the president by popular vote, the formation of the EU, and the reduction of presidential term limits.[145] Waning civic participation has been a matter of rigorous public debate, with a majority of the public reportedly supporting mandatory voting as a solution in 2019. However, at least as of 2017, voter turnout was 75 percent during recent elections, higher than the OECD average of 68 percent.[146] Law Main article: Law of France France uses a civil legal system, wherein law arises primarily from written statutes;[101] judges are not to make law, but merely to interpret it (though the amount of judicial interpretation in certain areas makes it equivalent to case law in a common law system). Basic principles of the rule of law were laid in the Napoleonic Code (which was, in turn, largely based on the royal law codified under Louis XIV). In agreement with the principles of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, law should only prohibit actions detrimental to society. As Guy Canivet, first president of the Court of Cassation, wrote about the management of prisons: "Freedom is the rule, and its restriction is the exception; any restriction of Freedom must be provided for by Law and must follow the principles of necessity and proportionality." That is, Law should lay out prohibitions only if they are needed, and if the inconveniences caused by this restriction do not exceed the inconveniences that the prohibition is supposed to remedy. color drawing of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen from 1789 The basic principles that the French Republic must respect are found in the 1789 Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. French law is divided into two principal areas: private law and public law. Private law includes, in particular, civil law and criminal law. Public law includes, in particular, administrative law and constitutional law. However, in practical terms, French law comprises three principal areas of law: civil law, criminal law, and administrative law. Criminal laws can only address the future and not the past (criminal ex post facto laws are prohibited).[147] While administrative law is often a subcategory of civil law in many countries, it is completely separated in France and each body of law is headed by a specific supreme court: ordinary courts (which handle criminal and civil litigation) are headed by the Court of Cassation and administrative courts are headed by the Council of State. To be applicable, every law must be officially published in the Journal officiel de la République française. France does not recognise religious law as a motivation for the enactment of prohibitions; it has long abolished blasphemy laws and sodomy laws (the latter in 1791). However, "offences against public decency" (contraires aux bonnes mœurs) or disturbing public order (trouble à l'ordre public) have been used to repress public expressions of homosexuality or street prostitution. Since 1999, civil unions for homosexual couples are permitted, and since 2013, same-sex marriage and LGBT adoption are legal.[148] Laws prohibiting discriminatory speech in the press are as old as 1881. Some consider hate speech laws in France to be too broad or severe, undermining freedom of speech.[149] France has laws against racism and antisemitism,[150] while the 1990 Gayssot Act prohibits Holocaust denial. Freedom of religion is constitutionally guaranteed by the 1789 Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. The 1905 French law on the Separation of the Churches and the State is the basis for laïcité (state secularism): the state does not formally recognise any religion, except in Alsace-Moselle. Nonetheless, it does recognise religious associations. The Parliament has listed many religious movements as dangerous cults since 1995, and has banned wearing conspicuous religious symbols in schools since 2004. In 2010, it banned the wearing of face-covering Islamic veils in public; human rights groups such as Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch described the law as discriminatory towards Muslims.[151][152] However, it is supported by most of the population.[153] Foreign relations Main article: Foreign relations of France La Francophonie map (dozens of countries in Africa, Europe, Asia and Latin America are members of this international organisation. 88 states and governments are part of La Francophonie,[154] which promotes values of democracy, multilingualism and cultural diversity.[155] France has been a key member of this global organisation since its inception in 1970. France is a founding member of the United Nations and serves as one of the permanent members of the UN Security Council with veto rights.[156] In 2015, it was described as "the best networked state in the world" due to its membership in more international institutions than any other country;[157] these include the G7, World Trade Organization (WTO),[158] the Pacific Community (SPC)[159] and the Indian Ocean Commission (COI).[160] It is an associate member of the Association of Caribbean States (ACS)[161] and a leading member of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie (OIF) of 84 French-speaking countries.[162] As a significant hub for international relations, France has the third-largest assembly of diplomatic missions, second only to China and the United States, which are far more populous. It also hosts the headquarters of several international organisations, including the OECD, UNESCO, Interpol, the International Bureau of Weights and Measures, and the OIF.[163] Postwar French foreign policy has been largely shaped by membership of the European Union, of which it was a founding member. Since the 1960s, France has developed close ties with reunified Germany to become the most influential driving force of the EU.[164] In the 1960s, France sought to exclude the British from the European unification process,[165] seeking to build its own standing in continental Europe. However, since 1904, France has maintained an "Entente cordiale" with the United Kingdom, and there has been a strengthening of links between the countries, especially militarily. European Parliament opening in Strasbourg with crowd and many countries' flags on flagpoles The European Parliament in Strasbourg, near the border with (Germany). France is a founding member of all EU institutions. France is a member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO), but under President de Gaulle excluded itself from the joint military command, in protest of the Special Relationship between the United States and Britain, and to preserve the independence of French foreign and security policies. Under Nicolas Sarkozy, France re-joined the NATO joint military command on 4 April 2009.[166][167][168] In the early 1990s, the country drew considerable criticism from other nations for its underground nuclear tests in French Polynesia.[169] France vigorously opposed the 2003 invasion of Iraq,[170][171] straining bilateral relations with the United States[172][173] and the United Kingdom. France retains strong political and economic influence in its former African colonies (Françafrique)[174] and has supplied economic aid and troops for peacekeeping missions in Ivory Coast and Chad.[175] Recently, after the unilateral declaration of independence of Northern Mali by the Tuareg MNLA and the subsequent regional Northern Mali conflict with several Islamist groups including Ansar Dine and MOJWA, France and other African states intervened to help the Malian Army to retake control. In 2017, France was the world's fourth-largest donor of development aid in absolute terms, behind the United States, Germany, and the United Kingdom.[176] This represents 0.43% of its GNP, the 12th highest among the OECD.[177] Aid is provided by the governmental French Development Agency, which finances primarily humanitarian projects in sub-Saharan Africa,[178] with an emphasis on "developing infrastructure, access to health care and education, the implementation of appropriate economic policies and the consolidation of the rule of law and democracy".[178] Military Main article: French Armed Forces see description Examples of France's military. Clockwise from top left: nuclear aircraft carrier Charles de Gaulle; a Dassault Rafale fighter aircraft; French Chasseurs Alpins patrolling the valleys of Kapisa province in Afghanistan; a Leclerc tank The French Armed Forces (Forces armées françaises) are the military and paramilitary forces of France, under the President of the Republic as supreme commander. They consist of the French Army (Armée de Terre), French Navy (Marine Nationale, formerly called Armée de Mer), the French Air and Space Force (Armée de l'Air et de l’Espace), and the Military Police called National Gendarmerie (Gendarmerie nationale), which also fulfils civil police duties in the rural areas of France. Together they are among the largest armed forces in the world and the largest in the EU. According to a 2018 study by Crédit Suisse, the French Armed Forces are ranked as the world's sixth-most powerful military, and the most powerful in Europe, only behind Russia.[179] While the Gendarmerie is an integral part of the French armed forces (gendarmes are career soldiers), and therefore under the purview of the Ministry of the Armed Forces, it is operationally attached to the Ministry of the Interior as far as its civil police duties are concerned. When acting as general purpose police force, the Gendarmerie encompasses the counter terrorist units of the Parachute Intervention Squadron of the National Gendarmerie (Escadron Parachutiste d'Intervention de la Gendarmerie Nationale), the National Gendarmerie Intervention Group (Groupe d'Intervention de la Gendarmerie Nationale), the Search Sections of the National Gendarmerie (Sections de Recherche de la Gendarmerie Nationale), responsible for criminal enquiries, and the Mobile Brigades of the National Gendarmerie (Brigades mobiles de la Gendarmerie Nationale, or in short Gendarmerie mobile) which have the task to maintain public order. The following special units are also part of the Gendarmerie: the Republican Guard (Garde républicaine) which protects public buildings hosting major French institutions, the Maritime Gendarmerie (Gendarmerie maritime) serving as Coast Guard, the Provost Service (Prévôté), acting as the Military Police branch of the Gendarmerie. Bastille Day in Paris National Gendarmerie Combined Arms School National Active Non-Commissioned Officers School As far as the French intelligence units are concerned, the Directorate-General for External Security (Direction générale de la sécurité extérieure) is considered to be a component of the Armed Forces under the authority of the Ministry of Defense. The other, the Central Directorate for Interior Intelligence (Direction centrale du renseignement intérieur) is a division of the National Police Force (Direction générale de la Police Nationale), and therefore reports directly to the Ministry of the Interior. There has been no national conscription since 1997.[180] France is a permanent member of the Security Council of the UN, and a recognised nuclear state since 1960. France has signed and ratified the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT)[181] and acceded to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. France's annual military expenditure in 2018 was US$63.8 billion, or 2.3% of its GDP, making it the fifth biggest military spender in the world after the United States, China, Saudi Arabia, and India.[182] French nuclear deterrence, (formerly known as "Force de Frappe"), relies on complete independence. The current French nuclear force consists of four Triomphant class submarines equipped with submarine-launched ballistic missiles. In addition to the submarine fleet, it is estimated that France has about 60 ASMP medium-range air-to-ground missiles with nuclear warheads,[183] of which around 50 are deployed by the Air and Space Force using the Mirage 2000N long-range nuclear strike aircraft, while around 10 are deployed by the French Navy's Super Étendard Modernisé (SEM) attack aircraft, which operate from the nuclear-powered aircraft carrier Charles de Gaulle. The new Rafale F3 aircraft will gradually replace all Mirage 2000N and SEM in the nuclear strike role with the improved ASMP-A missile with a nuclear warhead. France has major military industries with one of the largest aerospace industries in the world.[184][185] Its industries have produced such equipment as the Rafale fighter, the Charles de Gaulle aircraft carrier, the Exocet missile and the Leclerc tank among others. Despite withdrawing from the Eurofighter project, France is actively investing in European joint projects such as the Eurocopter Tiger, multipurpose frigates, the UCAV demonstrator nEUROn and the Airbus A400M. France is a major arms seller,[186][187] with most of its arsenal's designs available for the export market with the notable exception of nuclear-powered devices. France has consistently developed its cybersecurity capabilities, which are regularly ranked as some of the most robust of any nation of the world.[188][189] The Bastille Day military parade held in Paris each 14 July for France's national day, called Bastille Day in English-speaking countries (referred to in France as Fête nationale), is the oldest and largest regular military parade in Europe. Other smaller parades are organised across the country. Government finance See also: Taxation in France The Government of France has run a budget deficit each year since the early 1970s. As of 2016, French government debt levels reached 2.2 trillion euros, the equivalent of 96.4% of French GDP.[190] In late 2012, credit rating agencies warned that growing French Government debt levels risked France's AAA credit rating, raising the possibility of a future downgrade and subsequent higher borrowing costs for the French authorities.[191] However, in July 2020, during the -19 pandemic, the French government issued 10-years bonds which had negative interest rates, for the first time in its history.[192] France also possesses in 2020 the fourth-largest gold reserves in the world.[193] Economy Main article: Economy of France La Défense, seen from the Eiffel Tower La Défense (as seen from the Eiffel Tower) was in 2017 ranked by Ernst & Young as the leading Central business district in continental Europe, and the fourth in the world.[194] France has a developed, high-income mixed economy, characterised by sizeable government involvement, economic diversity, a skilled labour force, and high innovation. For roughly two centuries, the French economy has consistently ranked among the ten largest globally; it is currently the world's ninth-largest by purchasing power parity, the seventh-largest by nominal GDP, and the second-largest in the European Union by both metrics.[195] France is considered an economic power, with membership in the Group of Seven leading industrialised countries, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), and the Group of Twenty largest economies. France's economy is highly diversified; services represent two-thirds of both the workforce and GDP,[196] while the industrial sector accounts for a fifth of GDP and a similar proportion of employment. France is the third-biggest manufacturing country in Europe, behind Germany and Italy, and ranks eighth in the world by share of global manufacturing output, at 1.9 percent.[197] Less than 2 percent of GDP is generated by the primary sector, namely agriculture;[198] however, France's agricultural sector is among the largest in value and leads the EU in terms of overall production.[199] In 2018, France was the fifth-largest trading nation in the world and the second-largest in Europe, with the value of exports representing over a fifth of GDP.[200] Its membership in the Eurozone and the broader European Single Market facilitate access to capital, goods, services, and skilled labour.[201] Despite protectionist policies over certain industries, particularly in agriculture, France has generally played a leading role in fostering free trade and commercial integration in Europe in order to enhance its economy.[202][203] In 2019, it ranked first in Europe and 13th in the world in foreign direct investment, with European countries and the United States being leading sources.[204] According to the Bank of France, the leading recipients of FDI were manufacturing, real estate, finance and insurance.[205] The Paris region has the highest concentration of multinational firms in Europe.[205] Under the doctrine of Dirigisme, the government historically played a major role in the economy; policies such as indicative planning and nationalisation are credited for contributing to three decades of unprecedented postwar economic growth known as Trente Glorieuses. At its peak in 1982, the public sector accounted for one-fifth of industrial employment and over four-fifths of the credit market. Beginning in the late 20th century, France loosened regulations and state involvement in the economy, with most leading companies now being privately owned; state ownership now dominates only transportation, defence and broadcasting.[206] Policies aimed at promoting economic dynamism and privatisation have improved France's economic standing globally: it is among the world's 10 most innovative countries in the 2020 Bloomberg Innovation Index,[207] and the 15th most competitive, according to the 2019 Global Competitiveness Report (up two places from 2018).[208] According to the IMF, France ranked 30th in GDP per capita, with roughly $45,000 per inhabitant. It placed 23rd in the Human Development Index, indicating very high human development. Public corruption is among the lowest in the world, with France consistently ranking among the 30 least corrupt countries since the Corruption Perceptions Index began in 2012; it placed 22nd in 2021, up one place from the previous year.[209][210] France is Europe's second-largest spender in research and development, at over 2 percent of GDP; globally, it ranks 12th.[211] Composition of the French economy (GDP) in 2016 by expenditure type Financial services, banking, and insurance are important part of the economy. AXA is the world's second-largest insurance company by total nonbanking assets in 2020.[212][213] As of 2011, the three largest financial institutions cooperatively owned by their customers were French: Crédit Agricole, Groupe Caisse D'Epargne, and Groupe Caisse D'Epargne.[214] According to a 2020 report by S&P Global Market Intelligenc, France's leading banks, BNP Paribas and Crédit Agricole, are among the top world's 10 largest bank by assets, with Société Générale and Groupe BPCE ranking 17th and 19th globally, respectively.[215] The Paris stock exchange (French: La Bourse de Paris) is one of the oldest in the world, created by Louis XV in 1724.[216] In 2000, it merged with counterparts in Amsterdam and Brussels to form Euronext,[217] which in 2007 merged with the New York stock exchange to form NYSE Euronext, the world's largest stock exchange.[217] Euronext Paris, the French branch of NYSE Euronext, is Europe's second-largest stock exchange market, behind the London Stock Exchange. Agriculture Champagne wine in a flute Champagne is from the Champagne region in Northeast France. France has historically been one of the world's major agricultural centres and remains a "global agricultural powerhouse".[218][219] Nicknamed "the granary of the old continent",[220] over half its total land area is farmland, of which 45 percent is devoted to permanent field crops such as cereals. The country's diverse climate, extensive arable land, modern farming technology, and EU subsidies has made it Europe's leading agricultural producer and exporter;[221] it accounts for one-fifth of the EU's agricultural production, including and over one-third of its oilseeds, cereals, and wine.[222] As of 2017, France ranked first in Europe in beef and cereals; second in dairy and aquaculture; and third in poultry, fruits, vegetables, and manufactured chocolate products.[223] France has the EU's largest cattle herd, at 18-19 million.[224] France is the world's sixth-biggest exporter of agricultural products, generating a trade surplus of over €7.4 billion.[223] Its primary agricultural exports are wheat, poultry, dairy, beef, pork, and internationally recognised brands, particularly beverages.[224][225] France is the fifth largest grower of wheat, after China, India, Russia, and the United States, all of which are significantly larger.[224] It is the world's top exporter of natural spring water, flax, malt, and potatoes.[223] In 2020, France exported over €61 billion in agricultural products, compared to €37 billion in 2000.[226][227] France was an early centre of viviculture, dating back to at least the sixth century BCE. It is the world's second largest producer of wine, with many varieties enjoying global renown, such as Champagne and Bordeaux;[223] domestic consumption is also high, particularly of Rosé. France produces rum primarily from overseas territories such as Martinique, Guadeloupe and La Réunion. Relative to other developed countries, agriculture is an important sector of France's economy: 3.8% of the active population is employed in agriculture, whereas the total agri-food industry made up 4.2% of French GDP in 2005.[222] France remains the largest recipient of EU agricultural subsidies, receiving an annual average of €8 billion from 2007 to 2019.[228][229] Tourism Main article: Tourism in France Tour Eiffel at sunrise from the trocadero The Eiffel Tower is the world's most-visited paid monument, an icon of both Paris and France. The Château de Marqueyssac, featuring a French formal garden, is one of the Remarkable Gardens of France. With 89 million international tourist arrivals in 2018,[230] France is the world's top tourist destination, ahead of Spain (83 million) and the United States (80 million). However, it ranks third in tourism-derived income due to shorter duration of visits.[231] The most popular tourist sites include (annual visitors): Eiffel Tower (6.2 million), Château de Versailles (2.8 million), Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle (2 million), Pont du Gard (1.5 million), Arc de Triomphe (1.2 million), Mont Saint-Michel (1 million), Sainte-Chapelle (683,000), Château du Haut-Kœnigsbourg (549,000), Puy de Dôme (500,000), Musée Picasso (441,000), and Carcassonne (362,000).[232] Paris region France, especially Paris, has some of the world's largest and most renowned museums, including the Louvre, which is the most visited art museum in the world (5.7 million), the Musée d'Orsay (2.1 million), mostly devoted to Impressionism, the Musée de l'Orangerie (1.02 million), which is home to eight large Water Lily murals by Claude Monet, as well as the Centre Georges Pompidou (1.2 million), dedicated to contemporary art. Disneyland Paris is Europe's most popular theme park, with 15 million combined visitors to the resort's Disneyland Park and Walt Disney Studios Park in 2009.[233] French Riviera With more than 10 millions tourists a year, the French Riviera (French: Côte d'Azur), in Southeast France, is the second leading tourist destination in the country, after the Paris region.[234] It benefits from 300 days of sunshine per year, 115 kilometres (71 mi) of coastline and beaches, 18 golf courses, 14 ski resorts and 3,000 restaurants.[235]: 31  Each year the Côte d'Azur hosts 50% of the world's superyacht fleet.[235]: 66  Châteaux With 6 millions tourists a year, the castles of the Loire Valley (French: châteaux) and the Loire Valley itself are the third leading tourist destination in France;[236][237] this World Heritage site is noteworthy for its architectural heritage, in its historic towns but in particular its castles, such as the Châteaux d'Amboise, de Chambord, d'Ussé, de Villandry, Chenonceau and Montsoreau. The Château de Chantilly, Versailles and Vaux-le-Vicomte, all three located near Paris, are also visitor attractions. Other protected areas France has 37 sites inscribed in UNESCO's World Heritage List and features cities of high cultural interest, beaches and seaside resorts, ski resorts, as well as rural regions that many enjoy for their beauty and tranquillity (green tourism). Small and picturesque French villages are promoted through the association Les Plus Beaux Villages de France (literally "The Most Beautiful Villages of France"). The "Remarkable Gardens" label is a list of the over 200 gardens classified by the Ministry of Culture. This label is intended to protect and promote remarkable gardens and parks. France attracts many religious pilgrims on their way to St. James, or to Lourdes, a town in the Hautes-Pyrénées that hosts several million visitors a year. Energy Further information: Energy in France Nuclear power plant in Cattenom, France four large cooling towers expelling white water vapour against a blue sky Belleville Nuclear Power Plant. France derives most of its electricity from nuclear power, the highest percentage in the world. France is the world's tenth-largest producer of electricity.[238] Électricité de France (EDF), which is majority-owned by the French government, is the country's main producer and distributor of electricity, and one of the world's largest electric utility companies, ranking third in revenue globally.[239] In 2018, EDF produced around one-fifth of the European Union's electricity, primarily from nuclear power.[240] As of 2021, France was the biggest energy exporter in Europe, mostly to the U.K. and Italy,[241] and the largest net exporter of electricity in the world.[241] Since the 1973 oil crisis, France has pursued a strong policy of energy security,[241] namely through heavy investment in nuclear energy. It is one of 32 countries with nuclear power plants, ranking second in the world by the number of operational nuclear reactors, at 56.[242] Consequently, 70% of France's electricity is generated by nuclear power, the highest proportion in the world by a wide margin;[243] only Slovakia and Ukraine derive a majority of electricity from nuclear power, at roughly 53% and 51%, respectively.[244] France is considered a world leader in nuclear technology, with reactors and fuel products being major exports.[241] Due to its overwhelming reliance on nuclear power, renewable energies have seen relatively little growth compared to other Western countries. Nevertheless, between 2008 and 2019, France's production capacity from renewable energies rose consistently and nearly doubled.[245] Hydropower is by far the leading source, accounting for over half the country's renewable energy sources[246] and contributing 13% of its electricity,[245] the highest proportion in Europe after Norway and Turkey.[246] As with nuclear power, most hydroelectric plants, such as Eguzon, Étang de Soulcem, and Lac de Vouglans, are managed by EDF.[246] France aims to further expand hydropower into 2040.[245] France made minimal but measurable investments in other renewable energy sources. Due to its geography and extensive agricultural land, it has the second-largest wind energy potential in Europe, and by 2017 had ranked eighth globally in installed wind capacity.[247] In terms of solar power, France ranked seventh in the world in 2015 for solar photovoltaic installation capacity.[248] As of 2019, solar power sources generated over 10,570 megawatts of electricity, compared to a little over 1,000 megawatts in 2010.[249] Because France derives the vast majority of its power from nuclear and renewable sources, close to half its primary energy (48.5%) is derived from low-carbon sources, compared to 26.4% in Europe and 15.7% in the world as a whole.[250] France is also the smallest emitter of carbon dioxide among the G7.[251] Transport Main article: Transport in France A TGV Duplex crossing the Cize–Bolozon viaduct. The train can reach a maximum speed of 360 kilometres per hour (220 mph). France's railway network, which stretches 29,473 kilometres (18,314 mi) as of 2008,[252] is the second most extensive in Western Europe after Germany.[253] It is operated by the SNCF, and high-speed trains include the Thalys, the Eurostar and TGV, which travels at 320 km/h (199 mph).[254] The Eurostar, along with the Eurotunnel Shuttle, connects with the United Kingdom through the Channel Tunnel. Rail connections exist to all other neighbouring countries in Europe except Andorra. Intra-urban connections are also well developed, with most major cities having underground or tramway services complementing bus services. There are approximately 1,027,183 kilometres (638,262 mi) of serviceable roadway in France, ranking it the most extensive network of the European continent.[255] The Paris region is enveloped with the densest network of roads and highways, which connect it with virtually all parts of the country. French roads also handle substantial international traffic, connecting with cities in neighbouring Belgium, Luxembourg, Germany, Switzerland, Italy, Spain, Andorra and Monaco. There is no annual registration fee or road tax; however, usage of the mostly privately owned motorways is through tolls except in the vicinity of large communes. The new car market is dominated by domestic brands such as Renault, Peugeot and Citroën.[256] France possesses the Millau Viaduct, the world's tallest bridge,[257] and has built many important bridges such as the Pont de Normandie. Diesel and gasoline fuelled cars and lorries cause a large part of the country's air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions.[258][259] Air France is one of the biggest airlines in the world. There are 464 airports in France.[101] Charles de Gaulle Airport, located in the vicinity of Paris, is the largest and busiest airport in the country, handling the vast majority of popular and commercial traffic and connecting Paris with virtually all major cities across the world. Air France is the national carrier airline, although numerous private airline companies provide domestic and international travel services. There are ten major ports in France, the largest of which is in Marseille,[260] which also is the largest bordering the Mediterranean Sea.[261][262] 12,261 kilometres (7,619 mi) of waterways traverse France including the Canal du Midi, which connects the Mediterranean Sea to the Atlantic Ocean through the Garonne river.[101] Science and technology Main articles: Science and technology in France and List of French inventions and discoveries Ariane 5 rocket France is in 2020 the biggest national financial contributor to the European Space Agency,[263] which conceived the Ariane rocket family, launched from French Guiana (Ariane 5 pictured). Since the Middle Ages, France has been a major contributor to scientific and technological achievement. In the early 11th century, the French-born Pope Sylvester II reintroduced the abacus and armillary sphere, and introduced Arabic numerals and clocks to much of Europe.[264] The University of Paris, founded in the mid-12th century, is still one of the most important academic institutions in the Western world.[265] In the 17th century, mathematician René Descartes pioneered rationalism as a method for acquiring scientific knowledge, while Blaise Pascal became famous for his work on probability and fluid mechanics; both were key figures of the Scientific Revolution, which blossomed in Europe during this period. The French Academy of Sciences, founded in the mid-17th century by Louis XIV to encourage and protect French scientific research, was one of the earliest national scientific institutions in history; it was at the forefront of scientific developments in Europe for the next two centuries. The Age of Enlightenment was marked by the work of biologist Buffon, one of the first naturalists to recognise ecological succession, and chemist Lavoisier, who discovered the role of oxygen in combustion. Diderot and D'Alembert published the Encyclopédie, which aimed to give the public access to "useful knowledge" that could be applied to everyday life.[266] The Industrial Revolution of the 19th century saw spectacular scientific developments in France, with Augustin Fresnel founding modern optics, Sadi Carnot laying the foundations of thermodynamics, and Louis Pasteur pioneering of microbiology. Other eminent French scientists of the period have their names inscribed on the Eiffel Tower. Famous French scientists of the 20th century include the mathematician and physicist Henri Poincaré; physicists Henri Becquerel, Pierre and Marie Curie, who remain famous for their work on radioactivity; physicist Paul Langevin; and virologist Luc Montagnier, co-discoverer of HIV AIDS. Hand transplantation was developed in Lyon in 1998 by an international team that included Jean-Michel Dubernard, who afterward performed the first successful double hand transplant.[267] Telesurgery was first performed by French surgeons led by Jacques Marescaux on 7 September 2001 across the Atlantic Ocean.[268] A face transplant was first done on 27 November 2005 by Dr. Bernard Devauchelle.[269][270] France was the fourth country to achieve nuclear capability[271] and has the third largest nuclear weapons arsenal in the world;[272] it is also a leader in civilian nuclear technology.[273][274][275] France was the third nation, after the Soviet Union and the United States, to launch its own space satellite, and the first to establish a commercial launch service provider, Arianespace. The French national space programme, CNES, is the third oldest in the world, and the oldest, largest, and most active in Europe. France is a founding member of the European Space Agency (ESA), contributing over a quarter of its budget, the most of any member state.[276] ESA is headquartered in Paris, has its principal spaceport in French Guiana, and utilises the French-made Ariane 5 as its primary launch vehicle.[277][278][279] Airbus, a leading aerospace company and the world's largest airline manufacturer, was formed partly from the French company, Aérospatiale; its main commercial airline business is conducted through its French division, Airbus S.A.S. Top view of the ring of European Synchrotron Radiation Facility The European Synchrotron Radiation Facility in Grenoble France also hosts major international research facilities, including the European Synchrotron Radiation Facility, the Institut Laue–Langevin, and Minatec, Europe's leading nanotechnology research centre. It is also a major member of CERN, which operates the largest particle physics laboratory in the world and is its third largest contributor. France pioneered and hosts ITER, an international effort to develop nuclear fusion energy, which is the world's biggest megaproject. The TGV, developed by France's national railway company, the SNCF, is a high-speed train that holds a series of world speed records; in 2007, it became the fastest commercial wheeled train, achieving a speed of 574.8 km/h (357.2 mph).[280] As of 2021, it is the third-fastest train in the world, surpassed only by maglev models that utilise magnetic levitation.[281] Western Europe is now serviced by a network of TGV lines. The Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), the state research agency, is the largest research institute in Europe and among the most prominent internationally; according to the 2020 Nature Index, it ranks fourth in the share of articles published in scientific journals worldwide,[282] with France as a whole having the sixth-highest share.[283] As of 2022, France ranks fourth in the number of Nobel laureates, with 70 French people having been awarded a Nobel Prize.[284] Twelve French mathematicians have received a Fields Medal, considered the most prestigious award in the field, making up one-fifth of total recipients,[285] and second only the United States. France ranked 11th in the 2021 Global Innovation Index, compared to 12th in 2020 and 16th in 2019.[286][287][288][289] Demographics Main articles: Demographics of France and French people Population density in France by arrondissement. The main urban areas are visible, notably the Paris (centre-north), Lille (north), Marseille (southeast) and Lyon (centre-southeast) urban areas. With an estimated July 2022 population of 67,897,000 people,[8] France is the 20th most populous country in the world, the third-most populous in Europe (after Russia and Germany), and the second most populous in the European Union (after Germany). France is an outlier among developed countries, particularly in Europe, for its relatively high rate of natural population growth: By birth rates alone, it was responsible for almost all natural population growth in the European Union in 2006.[290] Between 2006 and 2016, France saw the second-highest overall increase in population in the EU and was one of only four EU countries where natural births accounted for most population growth.[291] This was the highest rate since the end of the baby boom in 1973 and coincides with the rise of the total fertility rate from a nadir of 1.7 in 1994 to 2.0 in 2010. As of January 2021, the fertility rate declined slightly to 1.84 children per woman, below the replacement rate of 2.1, and considerably below the high of 4.41 in 1800.[292][293][294][295] France's fertility rate and crude birth rate nonetheless remain among the highest in the EU. However, like many developed nations, the French population is aging; the average age is 41.7 years, while about a fifth of French people are 65 or over.[296] Average life expectancy at birth is 82.7 years, the 12th highest in the world. From 2006 to 2011, population growth averaged 0.6 percent per year;[297] since 2011, annual growth has been between 0.4 and 0.5 percent annually.[298] Immigrants are major contributors to this trend; in 2010, 27 percent of newborns in metropolitan France had at least one foreign-born parent and another 24 percent had at least one parent born outside Europe (excluding French overseas territories).[299] Ethnic groups Most French people are of Celtic-Gallic origin, with a significant admixture of Italic (Romans) and Germanic (Franks) groups reflecting centuries of respective migration and settlement.[300] Through the course of the Middle Ages, France incorporated various neighbouring ethnic and linguistic groups, as evidenced by Breton elements in the west, Aquitanian in the southwest, Scandinavian in the northwest, Alemannic in the northeast, and Ligurian in the southeast. Large-scale immigration over the last century and a half has led to a more multicultural society; beginning with the French Revolution, and further codified in the French Constitution of 1958, the government is prohibited from collecting data on ethnicity and ancestry; most demographic information is drawn from private sector organisations or academic institutions. In 2004, the Institut Montaigne estimated that within Metropolitan France, 51 million people were White (85% of the population), 6 million were Northwest African (10%), 2 million were Black (3.3%), and 1 million were Asian (1.7%).[301][302] A 2008 poll conducted jointly by INED and the French National Institute of Statistics[303][304] estimated that the largest ancestry groups were Italian (5 million), followed by Northwest African (3-6 million),[305][306][307] Sub-Saharan African (2.5 million), Armenian (500,000), and Turkish (200,000).[308] There are also sizeable minorities of other European ethnic groups, namely Spanish, Portuguese, Polish, and Greek.[305][309][310] France has a significant Gitan (Romani) population, numbering between 20,000 and 400,000;[311] many foreign Roma are expelled back to Bulgaria and Romania frequently.[312] Immigration Number of immigrants[XIII] living in France by region of birth UN SDG region 2019 census 2009 census Growth Northern Africa and Western Asia 2,425,200 1,983,600 +22.3% Europe 2,297,400 2,076,200 +10.7% Sub-Saharan Africa 1,123,800 667,500 +68.4% Eastern and South-Eastern Asia 311,400 293,100 +6.2% Latin America and the Caribbean 307,650 233,900 +31.5% Central and Southern Asia 205,600 120,100 +71.2% Northern America 54,600 51,600 +5.8% Australia, NZ, and Oceania 7,950 6,700 +18.7% TOTAL 6,733,600 5,432,700 +23.9% Sources: INSEE census figures,[313] UN SDG regions.[314] Note: Figures for 2019 refer to Metropolitan France and the 5 overseas regions (Mayotte included). Figures for 2009 do not include Mayotte. The overseas collectivities in the Pacific Ocean are included neither in 2009 nor in 2019. It is currently estimated that 40% of the French population is descended at least partially from the different waves of immigration since the early 20th century;[315] between 1921 and 1935 alone, about 1.1 million net immigrants came to France.[316] The next largest wave came in the 1960s, when around 1.6 million pieds noirs returned to France following the independence of its Northwest African possessions, Algeria and Morocco.[317][318] They were joined by numerous former colonial subjects from North and West Africa, as well as numerous European immigrants from Spain and Portugal. France remains a major destination for immigrants, accepting about 200,000 legal immigrants annually.[319] In 2005, it was Western Europe's leading recipient of asylum seekers, with an estimated 50,000 applications (albeit 15% decrease from 2004).[320] In 2010, France received about 48,100 asylum applications—placing it among the top five asylum recipients in the world[321] and in subsequent years it saw the number of applications increase, ultimately doubling to 100,412 in 2017.[322] The European Union allows free movement between the member states, although France established controls to curb Eastern European migration,[citation needed] and immigration remains a contentious political issue. In 2008, the INSEE (National Institute of Statistics and Economic Studies) estimated that the total number of foreign-born immigrants was around 5 million (8% of the population), while their French-born descendants numbered 6.5 million, or 11% of the population. Thus, nearly a fifth of the country's population were either first or second-generation immigrants, of which more than 5 million were of European origin and 4 million of Maghrebi ancestry.[323][324][325] In 2008, France granted citizenship to 137,000 persons, mostly from Morocco, Algeria and Turkey.[326] In 2014, the INSEE reported a significant increase in the number of immigrants coming from Spain, Portugal and Italy between 2009 and 2012. According to the French Institute, this increase resulted from the financial crisis that hit several European countries in that period.[327] Statistics on Spanish immigrants in France show a growth of 107 percent between 2009 and 2012, with the population growing from 5,300 to 11,000.[327] Of the total of 229,000 foreigners who were in France in 2012, nearly 8% were Portuguese, 5% British, 5% Spanish, 4% Italian, 4% German, 3% Romanian, and 3% Belgian.[327] Major cities See also: Functional area (France) and Urban unit France is a highly urbanised country, with its largest cities (in terms of metropolitan area population in 2019[328]) being Paris (13,114,718 inh.), Lyon (2,280,845), Marseille (1,873,270), Lille (1,510,079), Toulouse (1,454,158), Bordeaux (1,363,711), Nantes (1,011,020), Strasbourg (853,110), Montpellier (801,595), and Rennes (755,668). (Note: since its 2020 revision of metropolitan area borders, INSEE considers that Nice is a metropolitan area separate from the Cannes-Antibes metropolitan area; these two combined would have a population of 1,008,296, as of 2019 census). Rural flight was a perennial political issue throughout most of the 20th century.    Largest metropolitan areas in France 2019 census Rank Name Region Pop. Rank Name Region Pop. Paris Paris Lyon Lyon 1 Paris Île-de-France 13,114,718 11 Grenoble Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes 717,469 Marseille Marseille Lille Lille 2 Lyon Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes 2,280,845 12 Rouen Normandy 705,627 3 Marseille Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur 1,873,270 13 Nice Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur 615,126 4 Lille Hauts-de-France 1,510,079 14 Toulon Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur 573,230 5 Toulouse Occitania (administrative region) 1,454,158 15 Tours Centre-Val de Loire 519,778 6 Bordeaux Nouvelle-Aquitaine 1,363,711 16 Nancy Grand Est 510,306 7 Nantes Pays de la Loire 1,011,020 17 Clermont-Ferrand Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes 507,479 8 Strasbourg Grand Est 853,110 18 Saint-Étienne Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes 498,849 9 Montpellier Occitania (administrative region) 801,595 19 Caen Normandy 472,161 10 Rennes Brittany 755,668 20 Orléans Centre-Val de Loire 451,373 Language Main articles: French language, Languages of France, and Organisation internationale de la Francophonie world map of French speaking countries Map of the Francophone world:   Native language   Administrative language   Secondary or non-official language   Francophone minorities According to Article 2 of the Constitution, the official language of France is French,[329] a Romance language derived from Latin. Since 1635, the Académie française has been France's official authority on the French language, although its recommendations carry no legal weight. There are also regional languages spoken in France, such as Occitan, Breton, Catalan, Flemish (Dutch dialect), Alsatian (German dialect), Basque, and Corsican (Italian dialect). Italian was the official language of Corsica until 9 May 1859.[330] The Government of France does not regulate the choice of language in publications by individuals, but the use of French is required by law in commercial and workplace communications. In addition to mandating the use of French in the territory of the Republic, the French government tries to promote French in the European Union and globally through institutions such as the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie. The perceived threat from anglicisation has prompted efforts to safeguard the position of the French language in France. Besides French, there exist 77 vernacular minority languages of France, eight spoken in French metropolitan territory and 69 in the French overseas territories. From the 17th to the mid-20th century, French served as the pre-eminent international language of diplomacy and international affairs as well as a lingua franca among the educated classes of Europe.[331] The dominant position of French language in international affairs was overtaken by English, since the emergence of the United States as a major power.[61][332][333] For most of the time in which French served as an international lingua franca, it was not the native language of most Frenchmen: a report in 1794 conducted by Henri Grégoire found that of the country's 25 million people, only three million spoke French natively; the rest spoke one of the country's many regional languages, such as Alsatian, Breton or Occitan.[334] Through the expansion of public education, in which French was the sole language of instruction, as well as other factors such as increased urbanisation and the rise of mass communication, French gradually came to be adopted by virtually the entire population, a process not completed until the 20th century. As a result of France's extensive colonial ambitions between the 17th and 20th centuries, French was introduced to the Americas, Africa, Polynesia, South-East Asia, as well as the Caribbean. French is the second most studied foreign language in the world after English,[335] and is a lingua franca in some regions, notably in Africa. The legacy of French as a living language outside Europe is mixed: it is nearly extinct in some former French colonies (The Levant, South and Southeast Asia), while creoles and pidgins based on French have emerged in the French departments in the West Indies and the South Pacific (French Polynesia). On the other hand, many former French colonies have adopted French as an official language, and the total number of French speakers is increasing, especially in Africa. It is estimated that between 300 million[336] and 500 million[337] people worldwide can speak French, either as a mother tongue or a second language. According to the 2007 Adult Education survey, part of a project by the European Union and carried in France by the INSEE and based on a sample of 15,350 persons, French was the native language of 87.2% of the total population, or roughly 55.81 million people, followed by Arabic (3.6%, 2.3 million), Portuguese (1.5%, 960,000), Spanish (1.2%, 770,000) and Italian (1.0%, 640,000). Native speakers of other languages made up the remaining 5.2% of the population.[338] Religion Main article: Religion in France Notre-Dame de Reims façade, gothic stone cathedral against blue sky Notre-Dame de Reims is the Roman Catholic cathedral where the Kings of France were crowned until 1825.[XIV] France is a secular country in which freedom of religion is a constitutional right. French religious policy is based on the concept of laïcité, a strict separation of church and state under which public life is kept completely secular. The exception to this is the region of Alsace and Moselle where Lutheranism, Catholicism and Judaism enjoy official status and state funding. According to a survey held in 2016 by Institut Montaigne and Institut français d'opinion publique (IFOP), 51.1% of the total population of France was Christian, 39.6% had no religion (atheism or agnosticism), 5.6% were Muslims, 2.5% were followers of other faiths, and the remaining 0.4% were undecided about their faith.[339] Estimates of the number of Muslims in France vary widely. In 2003, the French Ministry of the Interior estimated the total number of people of Muslim background to be between 5 and 6 million (8–10%).[340][341] The current Jewish community in France is the largest in Europe and the third largest in the world after Israel and the United States, ranging between 480,000 and 600,000, about 0.8% of the population as of 2016.[339] Catholicism has been the predominant religion in France for more than a millennium, though it is not as actively practised today as it was. Among the 47,000 religious buildings in France, 94% are Roman Catholic.[342] During the French Revolution, activists conducted a brutal campaign of de-Christianisation, ending the Catholic Church as the state religion. In some cases, clergy and churches were attacked, with iconoclasm stripping the churches of statues and ornaments. After alternating between royal and secular republican governments during the 19th century, in 1905 France passed the 1905 law on the Separation of the Churches and the State, which established the principle of laïcité.[343] To this day, the government is prohibited from recognising any specific right to a religious community (except for legacy statutes like those of military chaplains and the local law in Alsace-Moselle). It recognises religious organisations according to formal legal criteria that do not address religious doctrine. Conversely, religious organisations are expected to refrain from intervening in policymaking.[344] Certain groups, such as Scientology, Children of God, the Unification Church, or the Order of the Solar Temple are considered cults ("sectes" in French); therefore they do not have the same status as recognised religions in France.[345] Secte is considered a pejorative term in France.[346] Health Main article: Health in France Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital in Paris, stone building with slate dome The Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital, a teaching hospital in Paris, is one of Europe's largest hospitals.[347] The French health care system is one of universal health care largely financed by government national health insurance. In its 2000 assessment of world health care systems, the World Health Organization found that France provided the "close to best overall health care" in the world.[348] The French healthcare system was ranked first worldwide by the World Health Organization in 1997.[349][350] In 2011, France spent 11.6% of GDP on health care, or US$4,086 per capita,[351] a figure much higher than the average spent by countries in Europe but less than in the United States. Approximately 77% of health expenditures are covered by government funded agencies.[352] Care is generally free for people affected by chronic diseases (affections de longues durées) such as cancer, AIDS or cystic fibrosis. Average life expectancy at birth is 78 years for men and 85 years for women, one of the highest of the European Union and the World.[353][354] There are 3.22 physicians for every 1000 inhabitants in France,[355] and average health care spending per capita was US$4,719 in 2008.[356] As of 2007, approximately 140,000 inhabitants (0.4%) of France are living with HIV/AIDS.[101] Even if the French have the reputation of being one of the thinnest people in developed countries,[357][358][359][360][361][excessive citations] France—like other rich countries—faces an increasing and recent epidemic of obesity, due mostly to the replacement in French eating habits of traditional healthy French cuisine by junk food.[362][357][358][363][excessive citations] The French obesity rate is still far below that of the United States—currently equal to American rate in the 1970s—and is still the lowest of Europe.[358][360][363] Authorities now regard obesity as one of the main public health issues and fight it fiercely.[364] Rates of childhood obesity are slowing in France, while continuing to grow in other countries.[365] Education Main article: Education in France The École normale supérieure (ENS) in Paris, established in the end of the 18th century, produces more Nobel Prize laureates per capita than any other institution in the world.[366] In 1802, Napoleon created the lycée, the second and final stage of secondary education that prepares students for higher education studies or a profession.[367] Nevertheless, Jules Ferry is considered the father of the French modern school, leading reforms in the late 19th century that established free, secular and compulsory education (currently mandatory until the age of 16).[368][369] French education is centralised and divided into three stages: Primary, secondary, and higher education. The Programme for International Student Assessment, coordinated by the OECD, ranked France's education as near OECD average in 2018.[370][371] France was one of the PISA-participating countries where school children perceived some of the lowest levels of support and feedback from their teachers.[371] School children in France reported greater concern about the disciplinary climate and behaviour in classrooms compared to other OECD countries.[371] Primary and secondary education are predominantly public, run by the Ministry of National Education. While training and remuneration of teachers and the curriculum are the responsibility of the state centrally, the management of primary and secondary schools is overseen by local authorities. Primary education comprises two phases, nursery school (école maternelle) and elementary school (école élémentaire). Nursery school aims to stimulate the minds of very young children and promote their socialisation and development of a basic grasp of language and numbers. Around the age of six, children transfer to elementary school, whose primary objectives are learning about writing, arithmetic and citizenship. Secondary education also consists of two phases. The first is delivered through colleges (collège) and leads to the national certificate (Diplôme national du brevet). The second is offered in high schools (lycée) and finishes in national exams leading to a baccalaureate (baccalauréat, available in professional, technical or general flavours) or certificate of professional competence (certificat d'aptitude professionelle). Higher education is divided between public universities and the prestigious and selective Grandes écoles, such as Sciences Po Paris for Political studies, HEC Paris for Economics, Polytechnique, the École des hautes études en sciences sociales for Social studies and the École nationale supérieure des mines de Paris that produce high-profile engineers, or the École nationale d'administration for careers in the Grands Corps of the state. The Grandes écoles have been criticised for alleged elitism, producing many if not most of France's high-ranking civil servants, CEOs and politicians.[372] Culture Main article: Culture of France Eugène Delacroix's Liberty Leading the People (1830) portrays the July Revolution using the stylistic views of Romanticism. Since Liberty is part of the motto "Liberté, égalité, fraternité", as the French put it, this painting has become the primary symbol of the French Republic. France has been a centre of Western cultural development for centuries. Many French artists have been among the most renowned of their time; France is still recognised in the world for its rich cultural tradition.[373] The successive political regimes have always promoted artistic creation. The creation of the Ministry of Culture in 1959 helped preserve the cultural heritage of the country and make it available to the public. The Ministry of Culture has been very active since its creation, granting subsidies to artists, promoting French culture in the world, supporting festivals and cultural events, protecting historical monuments. The French government also succeeded in maintaining a cultural exception to defend audiovisual products made in the country.[374] France receives the highest number of tourists per year, largely thanks to the numerous cultural establishments and historical buildings implanted all over the territory. It counts 1,200 museums welcoming more than 50 million people annually.[375] The most important cultural sites are run by the government, for instance through the public agency Centre des monuments nationaux, which is responsible for approximately 85 national historical monuments. The 43,180 buildings protected as historical monuments include mainly residences (many castles) and religious buildings (cathedrals, basilicas, churches), but also statues, memorials and gardens. The UNESCO inscribed 45 sites in France on the World Heritage List.[376] Art Main article: French art The Louvre Museum, widely recognised as one of the finest art museums in the world, was in 2019 both the largest and the most-visited museum.[377] The origins of French art were very much influenced by Flemish art and by Italian art at the time of the Renaissance. Jean Fouquet, the most famous medieval French painter, is said to have been the first to travel to Italy and experience the Early Renaissance firsthand. The Renaissance painting School of Fontainebleau was directly inspired by Italian painters such as Primaticcio and Rosso Fiorentino, who both worked in France. Two of the most famous French artists of the time of Baroque era, Nicolas Poussin and Claude Lorrain, lived in Italy. Claude Monet, founder of the Impressionist movement The 17th century was the period when French painting became prominent and individualised itself through classicism. Prime Minister Jean-Baptiste Colbert founded in 1648 the Royal Academy of Painting and Sculpture under Louis XIV to protect these artists; in 1666 he also created the still-active French Academy in Rome to have direct relations with Italian artists. French artists developed the rococo style in the 18th century, as a more intimate imitation of old baroque style, the works of the court-endorsed artists Antoine Watteau, François Boucher and Jean-Honoré Fragonard being the most representative in the country. The French Revolution brought great changes, as Napoleon favoured artists of neoclassic style such as Jacques-Louis David and the highly influential Académie des Beaux-Arts defined the style known as Academism. At this time France had become a centre of artistic creation, the first half of the 19th century being dominated by two successive movements, at first Romanticism with Théodore Géricault and Eugène Delacroix, then Realism with Camille Corot, Gustave Courbet and Jean-François Millet, a style that eventually evolved into Naturalism. In the second part of the 19th century, France's influence over painting became even more important, with the development of new styles of painting such as Impressionism and Symbolism. The most famous impressionist painters of the period were Camille Pissarro, Édouard Manet, Edgar Degas, Claude Monet and Auguste Renoir.[378] The second generation of impressionist-style painters, Paul Cézanne, Paul Gauguin, Toulouse-Lautrec and Georges Seurat, were also at the avant-garde of artistic evolutions,[379] as well as the fauvist artists Henri Matisse, André Derain and Maurice de Vlaminck.[380][381] At the beginning of the 20th century, Cubism was developed by Georges Braque and the Spanish painter Pablo Picasso, living in Paris. Other foreign artists also settled and worked in or near Paris, such as Vincent van Gogh, Marc Chagall, Amedeo Modigliani and Wassily Kandinsky. The Thinker bronze statue from 1902 from the Musée Rodin, Paris Le Penseur by Auguste Rodin (1902), Musée Rodin, Paris Many museums in France are entirely or partly devoted to sculptures and painting works. A huge collection of old masterpieces created before or during the 18th century are displayed in the state-owned Musée du Louvre, such as the Mona Lisa, also known as "La Joconde". While the Louvre Palace has been for a long time a museum, the Musée d'Orsay was inaugurated in 1986 in the old railway station Gare d'Orsay, in a major reorganisation of national art collections, to gather French paintings from the second part of the 19th century (mainly Impressionism and Fauvism movements).[382][383] The Musée d'Orsay was voted in 2018 the best museum in the world.[384] Modern works are presented in the Musée National d'Art Moderne, which moved in 1976 to the Centre Georges Pompidou. These three state-owned museums welcome close to 17 million people a year.[385] Other national museums hosting paintings include the Grand Palais (1.3 million visitors in 2008), but there are also many museums owned by cities, the most visited being the Musée d'Art Moderne de la Ville de Paris (0.8 million entries in 2008), which hosts contemporary works.[385] Outside Paris, all the large cities have a Museum of Fine Arts with a section dedicated to European and French painting. Some of the finest collections are in Lyon, Lille, Rouen, Dijon, Rennes and Grenoble. Architecture Main article: French architecture Sainte Chapelle interior showing painted stonework vaulting and stained glass Saint Louis's Sainte-Chapelle represents the French impact on religious architecture. During the Middle Ages, many fortified castles were built by feudal nobles to mark their powers. Some French castles that survived are Chinon, Château d'Angers, the massive Château de Vincennes and the so-called Cathar castles. During this era, France had been using Romanesque architecture like most of Western Europe. Some of the greatest examples of Romanesque churches in France are the Saint Sernin Basilica in Toulouse, the largest Romanesque church in Europe,[386] and the remains of the Cluny Abbey. The Gothic architecture, originally named Opus Francigenum meaning "French work",[387] was born in Île-de-France and was the first French style of architecture to be copied in all Europe.[388] Northern France is the home of some of the most important Gothic cathedrals and basilicas, the first of these being the Saint Denis Basilica (used as the royal necropolis); other important French Gothic cathedrals are Notre-Dame de Chartres and Notre-Dame d'Amiens. The kings were crowned in another important Gothic church: Notre-Dame de Reims.[389] Aside from churches, Gothic Architecture had been used for many religious palaces, the most important one being the Palais des Papes in Avignon. The final victory in the Hundred Years' War marked an important stage in the evolution of French architecture. It was the time of the French Renaissance and several artists from Italy were invited to the French court; many residential palaces were built in the Loire Valley, from 1450 with as a first reference the Château de Montsoreau.[390] Such residential castles were the Château de Chambord, the Château de Chenonceau, or the Château d'Amboise. Following the renaissance and the end of the Middle Ages, Baroque architecture replaced the traditional Gothic style. However, in France, baroque architecture found a greater success in the secular domain than in a religious one.[391] In the secular domain, the Palace of Versailles has many baroque features. Jules Hardouin Mansart, who designed the extensions to Versailles, was one of the most influential French architects of the baroque era; he is famous for his dome at Les Invalides.[392] Some of the most impressive provincial baroque architecture is found in places that were not yet French such as Place Stanislas in Nancy. On the military architectural side, Vauban designed some of the most efficient fortresses in Europe and became an influential military architect; as a result, imitations of his works can be found all over Europe, the Americas, Russia and Turkey.[393][394] Place de la Bourse in Bordeaux, an example of French baroque architecture After the Revolution, the Republicans favoured Neoclassicism although it was introduced in France prior to the revolution with such buildings as the Parisian Pantheon or the Capitole de Toulouse. Built during the first French Empire, the Arc de Triomphe and Sainte Marie-Madeleine represent the best example of Empire style architecture.[395] Under Napoleon III, a new wave of urbanism and architecture was given birth; extravagant buildings such as the neo-baroque Palais Garnier were built. The urban planning of the time was very organised and rigorous; most notably, Haussmann's renovation of Paris. The architecture associated with this era is named Second Empire in English, the term being taken from the Second French Empire. At this time there was a strong Gothic resurgence across Europe and in France; the associated architect was Eugène Viollet-le-Duc. In the late 19th century, Gustave Eiffel designed many bridges, such as Garabit viaduct, and remains one of the most influential bridge designers of his time, although he is best remembered for the iconic Eiffel Tower. The City hall of Toulouse The Capitole de Toulouse hosts Toulouse City Hall. In the 20th century, French-Swiss architect Le Corbusier designed several buildings in France. More recently, French architects have combined both modern and old architectural styles. The Louvre Pyramid is an example of modern architecture added to an older building. The most difficult buildings to integrate within French cities are skyscrapers, as they are visible from afar. For instance, in Paris, since 1977, new buildings had to be under 37 metres (121 ft).[396] France's largest financial district is La Défense, where a significant number of skyscrapers are located.[397] Other massive buildings that are a challenge to integrate into their environment are large bridges; an example of the way this has been done is the Millau Viaduct. Some famous modern French architects include Jean Nouvel, Dominique Perrault, Christian de Portzamparc or Paul Andreu. Literature Main article: French literature The earliest French literature dates from the Middle Ages, when what is now known as modern France did not have a single, uniform language. There were several languages and dialects, and writers used their own spelling and grammar. Some authors of French medieval texts are unknown, such as Tristan and Iseult and Lancelot-Grail. Other authors are known, for example Chrétien de Troyes and Duke William IX of Aquitaine, who wrote in Occitan. Much medieval French poetry and literature were inspired by the legends of the Matter of France, such as The Song of Roland and the various chansons de geste. The Roman de Renart, written in 1175 by Perrout de Saint Cloude, tells the story of the medieval character Reynard ('the Fox') and is another example of early French writing. An important 16th-century writer was François Rabelais, whose novel Gargantua and Pantagruel has remained famous and appreciated until now. Michel de Montaigne was another major figure of French literature during that century. His most famous work, Essais, created the literary genre of the essay.[398] French poetry during that century was embodied by Pierre de Ronsard and Joachim du Bellay. Both writers founded the La Pléiade literary movement. In 1678, Madame de La Fayette published anonymously La Princesse de Clèves, a novel that is considered to be one of the first psychological novels of all time.[399] Jean de La Fontaine is one of the most famous fabulists of that time, as he wrote hundreds of fables, some being far more famous than others, such as The Ant and the Grasshopper. Generations of French pupils had to learn his fables, which were seen as helping teach wisdom and common sense to the young people. Some of his verses have entered the popular language to become proverbs, such as "À l'œuvre, on connaît l'artisan."[A workman is known by his chips].[400] see description French literary figures. Clockwise from top left: Molière is the most played author in the Comédie-Française;[401] Victor Hugo is one of the most important French novelist and poet; 19th-century poet, writer and translator Charles Baudelaire; 20th-century philosopher and novelist Jean-Paul Sartre Jean Racine, whose incredible mastery of the alexandrine and of the French language has been praised for centuries, created plays such as Phèdre or Britannicus. He is, along with Pierre Corneille (Le Cid) and Molière, considered one of the three great dramatists of France's golden age. Molière, who is deemed to be one of the greatest masters of comedy of the Western literature,[402] wrote dozens of plays, including Le Misanthrope, L'Avare, Le Malade imaginaire, as well as Le Bourgeois gentilhomme. His plays have been so popular around the world that the French language is sometimes dubbed as "the language of Molière" (la langue de Molière),[403] just like English is considered "the language of Shakespeare". French literature and poetry flourished even more in the 18th and 19th centuries. Denis Diderot's best-known works are Jacques the Fatalist and Rameau's Nephew. He is however best known for being the main redactor of the Encyclopédie, whose aim was to sum up all the knowledge of his century (in fields such as arts, sciences, languages, and philosophy) and to present them to the people, to fight ignorance and obscurantism. During that same century, Charles Perrault was a prolific writer of famous children's fairy tales including Puss in Boots, Cinderella, Sleeping Beauty and Bluebeard. At the start of the 19th century, symbolist poetry was an important movement in French literature, with poets such as Charles Baudelaire, Paul Verlaine and Stéphane Mallarmé.[404] The 19th century saw the writings of many renowned French authors. Victor Hugo is sometimes seen as "the greatest French writer of all time"[405] for excelling in all literary genres. The preface of his play Cromwell is considered to be the manifesto of the Romantic movement. Les Contemplations and La Légende des siècles are considered "poetic masterpieces",[406] Hugo's verse having been compared to that of Shakespeare, Dante and Homer.[406] His novel Les Misérables is widely seen as one of the greatest novel ever written[407] and The Hunchback of Notre Dame has remained immensely popular. Other major authors of that century include Alexandre Dumas (The Three Musketeers and The Count of Monte-Cristo), Jules Verne (Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea), Émile Zola (Les Rougon-Macquart), Honoré de Balzac (La Comédie humaine), Guy de Maupassant, Théophile Gautier and Stendhal (The Red and the Black, The Charterhouse of Parma), whose works are among the most well known in France and the world. The Prix Goncourt is a French literary prize first awarded in 1903.[408] Important writers of the 20th century include Marcel Proust, Louis-Ferdinand Céline, Albert Camus, and Jean-Paul Sartre. Antoine de Saint Exupéry wrote Little Prince, which has remained popular for decades with children and adults around the world.[409] As of 2014, French authors had more Literature Nobel Prizes than those of any other nation.[410] The first Nobel Prize in Literature was a French author, while France's latest Nobel prize in literature is Patrick Modiano, who was awarded the prize in 2014.[410] Jean-Paul Sartre was also the first nominee in the committee's history to refuse the prize in 1964.[410] Philosophy Main article: French philosophy Medieval philosophy was dominated by Scholasticism until the emergence of Humanism in the Renaissance. Modern philosophy began in France in the 17th century with the philosophy of René Descartes, Blaise Pascal and Nicolas Malebranche. Descartes was the first Western philosopher since ancient times to attempt to build a philosophical system from the ground up rather than building on the work of predecessors.[411][412] His Meditations on First Philosophy changed the primary object of philosophical thought and raised some of the most fundamental problems for foreigners such as Spinoza, Leibniz, Hume, Berkeley, and Kant. Frans Hals painting of René Descartes facing right in black coat and white collar René Descartes, founder of modern Western philosophy[413] French philosophers produced some of the most important political works of the Age of Enlightenment. In The Spirit of the Laws, Baron de Montesquieu theorised the principle of separation of powers, which has been implemented in all liberal democracies since it was first applied in the United States. Voltaire came to embody the Enlightenment with his defence of civil liberties, such as the right to a free trial and freedom of religion. 19th-century French thought was targeted at responding to the social malaise following the French Revolution. Rationalist philosophers such as Victor Cousin and Auguste Comte, who called for a new social doctrine, were opposed by reactionary thinkers such as Joseph de Maistre, Louis de Bonald and Félicité Robert de Lamennais, who blamed the rationalist rejection of traditional order. De Maistre, together with the Englishman Edmund Burke, was one of the founders of European conservatism. Comte was the founder of positivism, which Émile Durkheim reformulated as a basis for social research. In the 20th century, partly as a reaction to the perceived excesses of positivism, French spiritualism thrived with thinkers such as Henri Bergson and it influenced American pragmatism and Whitehead's version of process philosophy. Meanwhile, French epistemology became a prominent school of thought with Jules Henri Poincaré, Gaston Bachelard, Jean Cavaillès and Jules Vuillemin. Influenced by German phenomenology and existentialism, the philosophy of Jean-Paul Sartre gained a strong influence after World War II, and late-20th-century-France became the cradle of postmodern philosophy with Jean-François Lyotard, Jean Baudrillard, Jacques Derrida and Michel Foucault. Music Main article: Music of France Claude Debussy France has a long and varied musical history. It experienced a golden age in the 17th century thanks to Louis XIV, who employed many talented musicians and composers in the royal court. The most renowned composers of this period include Marc-Antoine Charpentier, François Couperin, Michel-Richard Delalande, Jean-Baptiste Lully and Marin Marais, all of them composers at the court. After the death of the "Roi Soleil", French musical creation lost dynamism, but in the next century the music of Jean-Philippe Rameau reached some prestige, and today he is still one of the most renowned French composers. Rameau became the dominant composer of French opera and the leading French composer for the harpsichord.[414][full citation needed] French composers played an important role during the music of the 19th and early 20th century, which is considered to be the Romantic music era. Romantic music emphasised a surrender to nature, a fascination with the past and the supernatural, the exploration of unusual, strange and surprising sounds, and a focus on national identity. This period was also a golden age for operas. French composers from the Romantic era included: Hector Berlioz (best known for his Symphonie fantastique), Georges Bizet (best known for Carmen, which has become one of the most popular and frequently performed operas), Gabriel Fauré (best known for his Pavane, Requiem, and nocturnes), Charles Gounod (best known for his Ave Maria and his opera Faust), Jacques Offenbach (best known for his 100 operettas of the 1850s–1870s and his uncompleted opera The Tales of Hoffmann), Édouard Lalo (best known for his Symphonie espagnole for violin and orchestra and his Cello Concerto in D minor), Jules Massenet (best known for his operas, of which he wrote more than thirty, the most frequently staged are Manon (1884) and Werther (1892)) and Camille Saint-Saëns (he has many frequently-performed works, including The Carnival of the Animals, Danse macabre, Samson and Delilah (Opera), Introduction and Rondo Capriccioso and his Symphony No. 3). Later came precursors of modern classical music. Érik Satie was a key member of the early-20th-century Parisian avant-garde, best known for his Gymnopédies. Francis Poulenc's best known works are his piano suite Trois mouvements perpétuels (1919), the ballet Les biches (1923), the Concert champêtre (1928) for harpsichord and orchestra, the opera Dialogues des Carmélites (1957) and the Gloria (1959) for soprano, choir and orchestra. Maurice Ravel and Claude Debussy are the most prominent figures associated with Impressionist music. Debussy was among the most influential composers of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, and his use of non-traditional scales and chromaticism influenced many composers who followed.[415] Debussy's music is noted for its sensory content and frequent usage of atonality. The two composers invented new musical forms[416][417][418][419] and new sounds. Ravel's piano compositions, such as Jeux d'eau, Miroirs, Le tombeau de Couperin and Gaspard de la nuit, demand considerable virtuosity. His mastery of orchestration is evident in the Rapsodie espagnole, Daphnis et Chloé, his arrangement of Modest Mussorgsky's Pictures at an Exhibition and his orchestral work Boléro (1928). More recently, in the middle of the 20th century, Maurice Ohana, Pierre Schaeffer and Pierre Boulez contributed to the evolutions of contemporary classical music.[420] head shot of Serge Gainsbourg Serge Gainsbourg, one of the world's most influential popular musicians French music then followed the rapid emergence of pop and rock music at the middle of the 20th century. Although English-speaking creations achieved popularity in the country, French pop music, known as chanson française, has also remained very popular. Among the most important French artists of the century are Édith Piaf, Georges Brassens, Léo Ferré, Charles Aznavour and Serge Gainsbourg.[421] Although there are very few rock bands in France compared to English-speaking countries,[422] bands such as Noir Désir, Mano Negra, Niagara, Les Rita Mitsouko and more recently Superbus, Phoenix and Gojira,[423] or Shaka Ponk, have reached worldwide popularity. Daft Punk, pioneers of the French house movement Other French artists with international careers have been popular in several countries, most notably female singers Dalida, Mireille Mathieu, Mylène Farmer,[423] Alizée and Nolwenn Leroy,[424] electronic music pioneers Jean-Michel Jarre, Laurent Garnier and Bob Sinclar, later Martin Solveig and David Guetta. In the 1990s and 2000s (decade), electronic duos Daft Punk, Justice and Air also reached worldwide popularity and contributed to the reputation of modern electronic music in the world.[423][425][426] Among current musical events and institutions in France, many are dedicated to classical music and operas. The most prestigious institutions are the state-owned Paris National Opera (with its two sites Palais Garnier and Opéra Bastille), the Opéra National de Lyon, the Théâtre du Châtelet in Paris, the Théâtre du Capitole in Toulouse and the Grand Théâtre de Bordeaux. As for music festivals, there are several events organised, the most popular being Eurockéennes (a word play which sounds in French as "European"), Solidays and Rock en Seine. The Fête de la Musique, imitated by many foreign cities, was first launched by the French Government in 1982.[427][428] Major music halls and venues in France include Le Zénith sites present in many cities and other places in Paris (Paris Olympia, Théâtre Mogador, Élysée Montmartre). Cinema Main article: Cinema of France Palme d'Or award in presentation case A Palme d'Or from the Cannes Film Festival, one of the "Big Three" film festivals alongside the Venice Film Festival and Berlin International Film Festival[429][430][431] Louis de Funès, often called "France's favourite actor", has played over 130 roles in film and over 100 on stage.[432] France has historical and strong links with cinema, with two Frenchmen, Auguste and Louis Lumière (known as the Lumière Brothers) credited with creating cinema in 1895.[433] The world's first female filmmaker, Alice Guy-Blaché, was also from France.[434] Several important cinematic movements, including the late 1950s and 1960s Nouvelle Vague, began in the country. It is noted for having a strong film industry, due in part to protections afforded by the Government of France. France remains a leader in filmmaking, as of 2015 producing more films than any other European country.[435][436] The nation also hosts the Cannes Festival, one of the most important and famous film festivals in the world.[437][438] Apart from its strong and innovative film tradition, France has also been a gathering spot for artists from across Europe and the world. For this reason, French cinema is sometimes intertwined with the cinema of foreign nations. Directors from nations such as Poland (Roman Polanski, Krzysztof Kieślowski, Andrzej Żuławski), Argentina (Gaspar Noé, Edgardo Cozarinsky), Russia (Alexandre Alexeieff, Anatole Litvak), Austria (Michael Haneke) and Georgia (Géla Babluani, Otar Iosseliani) are prominent in the ranks of French cinema. Conversely, French directors have had prolific and influential careers in other countries, such as Luc Besson, Jacques Tourneur or Francis Veber in the United States. Although the French film market is dominated by Hollywood, France is the only nation in the 
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