EASTER PEEP ROPE LIGHT SIGN peep show vintage lighting wall art peeps onlyfans

£158.35 Buy It Now or Best Offer, Click to see shipping cost, eBay Money Back Guarantee
Seller: sidewaysstairsco ✉️ (1,180) 100%, Location: Santa Ana, California, US, Ships to: US, Item: 193891670888 EASTER PEEP ROPE LIGHT SIGN peep show vintage lighting wall art peeps onlyfans. Check out my other new & used items>>>>>>HERE! (click me) FOR SALE: An Easter decoration that oddly doubles as a provocative novelty 2001 "PEEP" ROPE LIGHTING WINDOW DECORATION DETAILS: Make your space special with rope lighting! This Easter-themed rope lighting window decoration is quite the retail oddity. It's marketed as an Easter decoration that represents the adorable sound ("peep") little chicks make but it's aesthetic also presents an adult theme undertone. Because the word choice is laid out in cursive style writing and lights up, appearing much like a neon sign, it's easy to intrepret the decoration as an erotic novelty. Use as home decor or if you make video content (especially adult content, e.g., OnlyFans) this light up "peep" sign would look great in your background. Includes suction cup hooks for easy hanging on windows and mirrors. The sign has a built-in loop for hanging using either the included suction cup hooks or your own mounting hardware (nail, cord, etc.) A vintage and very hard to find Target product! That's right, two decades ago this Target exclusive seasonal item was part of the 2001 Easter holiday merchandise line (20 years or older is considered vintage). It seems though that this decorative peculiarity was officially discontinued/retired because it hasn't resurfaced since it's first run - making it limited and hard to find. Dimensions: Approximately 16" x 8" CONDITION: Excellent, pre-owned condition. The sign works great and appears new. The box however has storage damage and some pen markings. Please see photos.  To ensure safe delivery, all items are carefully packaged before shipping out.  THANK YOU FOR LOOKING. QUESTIONS? JUST ASK. *ALL PHOTOS AND TEXT ARE INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY OF SIDEWAYS STAIRS CO. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.* "Easter,[nb 1] also called Pascha (Aramaic, Greek, Latin)[nb 2] or Resurrection Sunday,[5][6] is a festival and holiday commemorating the resurrection of Jesus from the dead, described in the New Testament as having occurred on the third day after his burial following his crucifixion by the Romans at Calvary c. 30 AD.[7][8] It is the culmination of the Passion of Jesus, preceded by Lent (or Great Lent), a 40-day period of fasting, prayer, and penance. Most Christians refer to the week before Easter as "Holy Week", which contains the days of the Easter Triduum, including Maundy Thursday, commemorating the Maundy and Last Supper,[9][10] as well as Good Friday, commemorating the crucifixion and death of Jesus.[11] In Western Christianity, Eastertide, or the Easter Season, begins on Easter Sunday and lasts seven weeks, ending with the coming of the 50th day, Pentecost Sunday. In Eastern Christianity, the season of Pascha begins on Pascha and ends with the coming of the 40th day, the Feast of the Ascension. Easter and the holidays that are related to it are moveable feasts which do not fall on a fixed date in the Gregorian or Julian calendars which follow only the cycle of the Sun; rather, its date is offset from the date of Passover and is therefore calculated based on a lunisolar calendar similar to the Hebrew calendar. The First Council of Nicaea (325) established two rules, independence of the Jewish calendar and worldwide uniformity, which were the only rules for Easter explicitly laid down by the council. No details for the computation were specified; these were worked out in practice, a process that took centuries and generated a number of controversies. It has come to be the first Sunday after the ecclesiastical full moon that occurs on or soonest after 21 March.[12] Even if calculated on the basis of the more accurate Gregorian calendar, the date of that full moon sometimes differs from that of the astronomical first full moon after the March equinox.[13] Easter is linked to the Jewish Passover (Hebrew: פֶּסַח pesach, Aramaic: פָּסחָא pascha) by much of its symbolism, as well as by its position in the calendar. In most European languages the feast is called by the words for passover in those languages; and in the older English versions of the Bible the term Easter was the term used to translate passover.[14] Easter customs vary across the Christian world, and include sunrise services, exclaiming the Paschal greeting, clipping the church,[15] and decorating Easter eggs (symbols of the empty tomb).[16][17][18] The Easter lily, a symbol of the resurrection,[19][20] traditionally decorates the chancel area of churches on this day and for the rest of Eastertide.[21] Additional customs that have become associated with Easter and are observed by both Christians and some non-Christians include egg hunting, the Easter Bunny, and Easter parades.[22][23][24] There are also various traditional Easter foods that vary regionally.... Etymology Main articles: Ēostre and Names of Easter The modern English term Easter, cognate with modern Dutch ooster and German Ostern, developed from an Old English word that usually appears in the form Ēastrun, -on, or -an; but also as Ēastru, -o; and Ēastre or Ēostre.[nb 3] Bede provides the only documentary source for the etymology of the word, in his Reckoning of Time. He wrote that Ēosturmōnaþ (Old English 'Month of Ēostre', translated in Bede's time as "Paschal month") was an English month, corresponding to April, which he says "was once called after a goddess of theirs named Ēostre, in whose honour feasts were celebrated in that month".[25] In Latin and Greek, the Christian celebration was, and still is, called Pascha (Greek: Πάσχα), a word derived from Aramaic פסחא (Paskha), cognate to Hebrew פֶּסַח (Pesach). The word originally denoted the Jewish festival known in English as Passover, commemorating the Jewish Exodus from slavery in Egypt.[26][27] As early as the 50s of the 1st century, Paul the Apostle, writing from Ephesus to the Christians in Corinth,[28] applied the term to Christ, and it is unlikely that the Ephesian and Corinthian Christians were the first to hear Exodus 12 interpreted as speaking about the death of Jesus, not just about the Jewish Passover ritual.[29] In most languages, Germanic languages such as English being exceptions, the feast is known by names derived from Greek and Latin Pascha.[4][30] Pascha is also a name by which Jesus himself is remembered in the Orthodox Church, especially in connection with his resurrection and with the season of its celebration.[31] Theological significance One of the earliest known depictions of the crucifixion and resurrection of Jesus (Rabbula Gospel illuminated manuscript, 6th century) The resurrection of Jesus, which Easter celebrates, is one of the chief tenets of the Christian faith.[32] The resurrection established Jesus as the Son of God[33] and is cited as proof that God will righteously judge the world.[34][35] For those who trust in Jesus's death and resurrection, "death is swallowed up in victory."[36] Any person who chooses to follow Jesus receives "a new birth into a living hope through the resurrection of Jesus Christ from the dead".[37] Through faith in the working of God those who follow Jesus are spiritually resurrected with him so that they may walk in a new way of life and receive eternal salvation, being physically resurrected to dwell in the Kingdom of Heaven.[35][38][39] Easter is linked to Passover and the Exodus from Egypt recorded in the Old Testament through the Last Supper, sufferings, and crucifixion of Jesus that preceded the resurrection.[30] According to the New Testament, Jesus gave the Passover meal a new meaning, as in the upper room during the Last Supper he prepared himself and his disciples for his death.[30] He identified the matzah and cup of wine as his body soon to be sacrificed and his blood soon to be shed. Paul states, "Get rid of the old yeast that you may be a new batch without yeast—as you really are. For Christ, our Passover lamb, has been sacrificed";[40] this refers to the Passover requirement to have no yeast in the house and to the allegory of Jesus as the Paschal lamb.[41] Early Christianity The Last Supper celebrated by Jesus and his disciples. The early Christians, too, would have celebrated this meal to commemorate Jesus's death and subsequent resurrection. The first Christians, Jewish and Gentile, were certainly aware of the Hebrew calendar.[nb 4] Jewish Christians, the first to celebrate the resurrection of Jesus, timed the observance in relation to Passover.[citation needed] Direct evidence for a more fully formed Christian festival of Pascha (Easter) begins to appear in the mid-2nd century. Perhaps the earliest extant primary source referring to Easter is a mid-2nd-century Paschal homily attributed to Melito of Sardis, which characterizes the celebration as a well-established one.[42] Evidence for another kind of annually recurring Christian festival, those commemorating the martyrs, began to appear at about the same time as the above homily.[43] While martyrs' days (usually the individual dates of martyrdom) were celebrated on fixed dates in the local solar calendar, the date of Easter was fixed by means of the local Jewish[44] lunisolar calendar. This is consistent with the celebration of Easter having entered Christianity during its earliest, Jewish, period, but does not leave the question free of doubt.[45] The ecclesiastical historian Socrates Scholasticus attributes the observance of Easter by the church to the perpetuation of its custom, "just as many other customs have been established", stating that neither Jesus nor his Apostles enjoined the keeping of this or any other festival. Although he describes the details of the Easter celebration as deriving from local custom, he insists the feast itself is universally observed.[46] Date A stained-glass window depicting the Passover Lamb, a concept integral to the foundation of Easter[30][47] Easter and the holidays that are related to it are moveable feasts, in that they do not fall on a fixed date in the Gregorian or Julian calendars (both of which follow the cycle of the sun and the seasons). Instead, the date for Easter is determined on a lunisolar calendar similar to the Hebrew calendar. The First Council of Nicaea (325) established two rules, independence of the Jewish calendar and worldwide uniformity, which were the only rules for Easter explicitly laid down by the Council. No details for the computation were specified; these were worked out in practice, a process that took centuries and generated a number of controversies. (See also Computus and Reform of the date of Easter.) In particular, the Council did not decree that Easter must fall on Sunday. This was already the practice almost everywhere.[48][incomplete short citation] In Western Christianity, using the Gregorian calendar, Easter always falls on a Sunday between 22 March and 25 April,[49] within about seven days after the astronomical full moon.[50] The following day, Easter Monday, is a legal holiday in many countries with predominantly Christian traditions. Eastern Christianity bases its calculations on the Julian Calendar. Because of the thirteen-day difference between the calendars between 1900 and 2099, 21 March corresponds, during the 21st century, to 3 April in the Gregorian Calendar. Easter therefore varies between 4 April and 8 May in the Gregorian calendar (the Julian calendar is no longer used as the civil calendar of the countries where Eastern Christian traditions predominate). Also, because the Julian "full moon" is always several days after the astronomical full moon, the eastern Easter is often later, relative to the visible Moon's phases, than western Easter. Among the Oriental Orthodox some churches have changed from the Julian to the Gregorian calendar and the date for Easter as for other fixed and moveable feasts is the same as in the Western church.[51] Computations Main article: Computus In 725, Bede succinctly wrote, "The Sunday following the full Moon which falls on or after the equinox will give the lawful Easter."[52] However, this does not precisely reflect the ecclesiastical rules. The full moon referred to (called the Paschal full moon) is not an astronomical full moon, but the 14th day of a lunar month. Another difference is that the astronomical equinox is a natural astronomical phenomenon, which can fall on 19, 20 or 21 March,[53] while the ecclesiastical date is fixed by convention on 21 March.[54] In applying the ecclesiastical rules, Christian churches use 21 March as the starting point in determining the date of Easter, from which they find the next full moon, etc. The Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox Churches continue to use the Julian calendar. Their starting point in determining the date of Orthodox Easter is also 21 March but according to the Julian reckoning, which in the current century corresponds to 3 April in the Gregorian calendar. In addition, the lunar tables of the Julian calendar are four days (sometimes five days) behind those of the Gregorian calendar. The 14th day of the lunar month according to the Gregorian system is figured as the ninth or tenth day according to the Julian. The result of this combination of solar and lunar discrepancies is divergence in the date of Easter in most years (see table). Easter is determined on the basis of lunisolar cycles. The lunar year consists of 30-day and 29-day lunar months, generally alternating, with an embolismic month added periodically to bring the lunar cycle into line with the solar cycle. In each solar year (1 January to 31 December inclusive), the lunar month beginning with an ecclesiastical new moon falling in the 29-day period from 8 March to 5 April inclusive is designated as the paschal lunar month for that year.[55] Easter is the third Sunday in the paschal lunar month, or, in other words, the Sunday after the paschal lunar month's 14th day. The 14th of the paschal lunar month is designated by convention as the Paschal full moon, although the 14th of the lunar month may differ from the date of the astronomical full moon by up to two days.[55] Since the ecclesiastical new moon falls on a date from 8 March to 5 April inclusive, the paschal full moon (the 14th of that lunar month) must fall on a date from 21 March to 18 April inclusive. The Gregorian calculation of Easter was based on a method devised by the Calabrian doctor Aloysius Lilius (or Lilio) for adjusting the epacts of the Moon,[56] and has been adopted by almost all Western Christians and by Western countries which celebrate national holidays at Easter. For the British Empire and colonies, a determination of the date of Easter Sunday using Golden Numbers and Sunday letters was defined by the Calendar (New Style) Act 1750 with its Annexe. This was designed to match exactly the Gregorian calculation. Controversies over the date Main article: Easter controversy A five-part Russian Orthodox icon depicting the Easter story. Eastern Orthodox Christians use a different computation for the date of Easter than the Western churches. The precise date of Easter has at times been a matter of contention. By the later 2nd century, it was widely accepted that the celebration of the holiday was a practice of the disciples and an undisputed tradition. The Quartodeciman controversy, the first of several Easter controversies, arose concerning the date on which the holiday should be celebrated. The term "Quartodeciman" refers to the practice of celebrating Easter on Nisan 14 of the Hebrew calendar, "the LORD's passover" (Leviticus 23:5). According to the church historian Eusebius, the Quartodeciman Polycarp (bishop of Smyrna, by tradition a disciple of John the Apostle) debated the question with Anicetus (bishop of Rome). The Roman province of Asia was Quartodeciman, while the Roman and Alexandrian churches continued the fast until the Sunday following (the Sunday of Unleavened Bread), wishing to associate Easter with Sunday. Neither Polycarp nor Anicetus persuaded the other, but they did not consider the matter schismatic either, parting in peace and leaving the question unsettled.[citation needed] Controversy arose when Victor, bishop of Rome a generation after Anicetus, attempted to excommunicate Polycrates of Ephesus and all other bishops of Asia for their Quartodecimanism. According to Eusebius, a number of synods were convened to deal with the controversy, which he regarded as all ruling in support of Easter on Sunday.[57] Polycrates (circa 190), however, wrote to Victor defending the antiquity of Asian Quartodecimanism. Victor's attempted excommunication was apparently rescinded, and the two sides reconciled upon the intervention of bishop Irenaeus and others, who reminded Victor of the tolerant precedent of Anicetus. Quartodecimanism seems to have lingered into the 4th century, when Socrates of Constantinople recorded that some Quartodecimans were deprived of their churches by John Chrysostom[58] and that some were harassed by Nestorius.[59] It is not known how long the Nisan 14 practice continued. But both those who followed the Nisan 14 custom, and those who set Easter to the following Sunday had in common the custom of consulting their Jewish neighbors to learn when the month of Nisan would fall, and setting their festival accordingly. By the later 3rd century, however, some Christians began to express dissatisfaction with the custom of relying on the Jewish community to determine the date of Easter. The chief complaint was that the Jewish communities sometimes erred in setting Passover to fall before the Northern Hemisphere spring equinox.[60][61] The Sardica paschal table[62] confirms these complaints, for it indicates that the Jews of some eastern Mediterranean city (possibly Antioch) fixed Nisan 14 on dates well before the spring equinox on multiple occasions.[63] Because of this dissatisfaction with reliance on the Jewish calendar, some Christians began to experiment with independent computations.[nb 5] Others, however, believed that the customary practice of consulting Jews should continue, even if the Jewish computations were in error. First Council of Nicaea (325 AD) Main article: First Council of Nicaea This controversy between those who advocated independent computations, and those who wished to continue the custom of relying on the Jewish calendar, was formally resolved by the First Council of Nicaea in 325, which endorsed changing to an independent computation by the Christian community in order to celebrate in common. This effectively required the abandonment of the old custom of consulting the Jewish community in those places where it was still used. Epiphanius of Salamis wrote in the mid-4th century:     the emperor ... convened a council of 318 bishops ... in the city of Nicea ... They passed certain ecclesiastical canons at the council besides, and at the same time decreed in regard to the Passover that there must be one unanimous concord on the celebration of God's holy and supremely excellent day. For it was variously observed by people[66] That the older custom (called "protopaschite" by historians) did not at once die out, but persisted for a time, is indicated by the existence of canons[67] and sermons[68] against it. Dionysius Exiguus, and others following him, maintained that the 318 Bishops assembled at the Nicene Council had specified a particular method of determining the date of Easter; subsequent scholarship has refuted this tradition.[69] In any case, in the years following the council, the computational system that was worked out by the church of Alexandria came to be normative. It took a while for the Alexandrian rules to be adopted throughout Christian Europe, however. The 8-year cycle originally employed was replaced by (or by the time of) Augustalis's treatise on the measurement of Easter, after which Rome used his 84-year lunisolar calendar cycle until 457. It then switched to an adaptation by Victorius of the Alexandrian rules.[70][71] Because this Victorian cycle differed from the Alexandrian cycle in the dates of some of the Paschal Full Moons, and because it tried to respect the Roman custom of fixing Easter to the Sunday in the week of the 16th to the 22nd of the lunar month (rather than the 15th to the 21st as at Alexandria), by providing alternative "Latin" and "Greek" dates in some years, occasional differences in the date of Easter as fixed by Alexandrian rules continued.[70][71] The Alexandrian rules were adopted in the West following the tables of Dionysius Exiguus in 525. From this time, therefore, all discrepancies between Alexandria and Rome as to the correct date for Easter cease, as both churches were using identical tables. Early Christians in Britain and Ireland also used an 84-year cycle. From the 5th century onward this cycle set its equinox to 25 March and fixed Easter to the Sunday falling in the 14th to the 20th of the lunar month inclusive.[72][73] This 84-year cycle was replaced by the Alexandrian method in the course of the 7th and 8th centuries. Churches in western continental Europe used a late Roman method until the late 8th century during the reign of Charlemagne, when they finally adopted the Alexandrian method. Since 1582, when the Catholic Church adopted the Gregorian calendar while the Eastern Orthodox and most Oriental Orthodox Churches retained the Julian calendar, the date on which Easter is celebrated has again differed. The Greek island of Syros, whose population is divided almost equally between Catholics and Orthodox, is one of the few places where the two Churches share a common date for Easter, with the Catholics accepting the Orthodox date—a practice helping considerably in maintaining good relations between the two communities.[74] Reform of the date See also: Reform of the date of Easter The congregation lighting their candles from the new flame, just as the priest has retrieved it from the altar – note that the picture is flash-illuminated; all electric lighting is off, and only the oil lamps in front of the Iconostasis remain lit. (St. George Greek Orthodox Church, Adelaide). In the 20th century, some individuals and institutions have propounded changing the method of calculating the date for Easter, the most prominent proposal being the Sunday after the second Saturday in April. Despite having some support, proposals to reform the date have not been implemented.[75] An Orthodox congress of Eastern Orthodox bishops, which included representatives mostly from the Patriarch of Constantinople and the Serbian Patriarch, met in Constantinople in 1923, where the bishops agreed to the Revised Julian calendar.[76] The original form of this calendar would have determined Easter using precise astronomical calculations based on the meridian of Jerusalem.[77][78] However, all the Eastern Orthodox countries that subsequently adopted the Revised Julian calendar adopted only that part of the revised calendar that applied to festivals falling on fixed dates in the Julian calendar. The revised Easter computation that had been part of the original 1923 agreement was never permanently implemented in any Orthodox diocese.[76] In the United Kingdom, the Easter Act 1928 set out legislation to change the date of Easter to be the first Sunday after the second Saturday in April (or, in other words, the Sunday in the period from 9 to 15 April). However, the legislation has not been implemented, although it remains on the Statute book and could be implemented subject to approval by the various Christian churches.[79] At a summit in Aleppo, Syria, in 1997, the World Council of Churches (WCC) proposed a reform in the calculation of Easter which would have replaced the present divergent practices of calculating Easter with modern scientific knowledge taking into account actual astronomical instances of the spring equinox and full moon based on the meridian of Jerusalem, while also following the Council of Nicea position of Easter being on the Sunday following the full moon.[80] The recommended World Council of Churches changes would have sidestepped the calendar issues and eliminated the difference in date between the Eastern and Western churches. The reform was proposed for implementation starting in 2001, but it was not ultimately adopted by any member body. In January 2016, Christian churches again considered the idea of a unified date of Easter, probably either the second or third Sunday in April.[81] Table of the dates of Easter     See also: Western vs Eastern dates, in a wider timeframe (2001–2041) The WCC presented comparative data of the relationships: Table of dates of Easter 2001–2025 (in Gregorian dates)[82] Year     Full Moon     Jewish Passover [note 1]     Astronomical Easter [note 2]     Gregorian Easter     Julian Easter 2001     8 April     15 April 2002     28 March     31 March     5 May 2003     16 April     17 April     20 April     27 April 2004     5 April     6 April     11 April 2005     25 March     24 April     27 March     1 May 2006     13 April     16 April     23 April 2007     2 April     3 April     8 April 2008     21 March     20 April     23 March     27 April 2009     9 April     12 April     19 April 2010     30 March     4 April 2011     18 April     19 April     24 April 2012     6 April     7 April     8 April     15 April 2013     27 March     26 March     31 March     5 May 2014     15 April     20 April 2015     4 April     5 April     12 April 2016     23 March     23 April     27 March     1 May 2017     11 April     16 April 2018     31 March     1 April     8 April 2019     21 March     20 April     24 March     21 April     28 April 2020     8 April     9 April     12 April     19 April 2021     28 March     4 April     2 May 2022     16 April     17 April     24 April 2023     6 April     9 April     16 April 2024     25 March     23 April     31 March     5 May 2025     13 April     20 April Jewish Passover is on Nisan 15 of its calendar. It commences at sunset preceding the date indicated (as does Easter in many traditions).     Astronomical Easter is the first Sunday after the astronomical full moon after the astronomical March equinox as measured at the meridian of Jerusalem according to this WCC proposal. Position in the church year Further information: Liturgical year Western Christianity Easter and other named days and day ranges around Lent and Easter in Western Christianity, with the fasting days of Lent numbered In Western Christianity, Easter is preceded by Lent, a period of fasting and penitence in preparation for Easter, which begins on Ash Wednesday and lasts 40 days (not counting Sundays). The week before Easter, known as Holy Week, is very special in the Christian tradition. The Sunday before Easter is Palm Sunday, with the Wednesday before Easter being known as Spy Wednesday. The last three days before Easter are Maundy Thursday, Good Friday and Holy Saturday (sometimes referred to as Silent Saturday). Palm Sunday, Maundy Thursday and Good Friday respectively commemorate Jesus's entry in Jerusalem, the Last Supper and the Crucifixion. Maundy Thursday, Good Friday, and Holy Saturday are sometimes referred to as the Easter Triduum (Latin for "Three Days"). Many churches begin celebrating Easter late in the evening of Holy Saturday at a service called the Easter Vigil. The week beginning with Easter Sunday is called Easter Week or the Octave of Easter, and each day is prefaced with "Easter", e.g. Easter Monday (a public holiday in many countries), Easter Tuesday (a much less widespread public holiday), etc. Easter Saturday is therefore the Saturday after Easter Sunday. The day before Easter is properly called Holy Saturday. Eastertide, or Paschaltide, the season of Easter, begins on Easter Sunday and lasts until the day of Pentecost, seven weeks later. Eastern Christianity In Eastern Christianity, the spiritual preparation for Easter begins with Great Lent, which starts on Clean Monday and lasts for 40 continuous days (including Sundays). The last week of Great Lent (following the fifth Sunday of Great Lent) is called Palm Week, and ends with Lazarus Saturday. The Vespers which begins Lazarus Saturday officially brings Great Lent to a close, although the fast continues through the following week. After Lazarus Saturday comes Palm Sunday, Holy Week, and finally Easter itself, and the fast is broken immediately after the Paschal Divine Liturgy. The Paschal Vigil begins with the Midnight Office, which is the last service of the Lenten Triodion and is timed so that it ends a little before midnight on Holy Saturday night. At the stroke of midnight the Paschal celebration itself begins, consisting of Paschal Matins, Paschal Hours, and Paschal Divine Liturgy.[83] Placing the Paschal Divine Liturgy at midnight guarantees that no Divine Liturgy will come earlier in the morning, ensuring its place as the pre-eminent "Feast of Feasts" in the liturgical year. The liturgical season from Easter to the Sunday of All Saints (the Sunday after Pentecost) is known as the Pentecostarion (the "50 days"). The week which begins on Easter Sunday is called Bright Week, during which there is no fasting, even on Wednesday and Friday. The Afterfeast of Easter lasts 39 days, with its Apodosis (leave-taking) on the day before the Feast of the Ascension. Pentecost Sunday is the 50th day from Easter (counted inclusively).[84] Liturgical observance The Resurrection of Jesus Christ, fresco by Piero della Francesca, 1463 Western Christianity The Easter festival is kept in many different ways among Western Christians. The traditional, liturgical observation of Easter, as practised among Roman Catholics, Lutherans,[85] and some Anglicans begins on the night of Holy Saturday with the Easter Vigil which follows an ancient liturgy involving symbols of light, candles and water and numerous readings form the Old and New Testament.[86] Services continue on Easter Sunday and in a number of countries on Easter Monday. In parishes of the Moravian Church, as well as some other denominations such as the Methodist Churches, there is a tradition of Easter Sunrise Services[87] often starting in cemeteries[88] in remembrance of the biblical narrative in the Gospels, or other places in the open where the sunrise is visible.[89] Eastern Christianity Icon of the Resurrection by an unknown 17th-century Bulgarian artist Eastern Catholics and Byzantine Rite Lutherans have a similar emphasis on Easter in their calendars, and many of their liturgical customs are very similar.[90] Preparation for Easter begins with the season of Great Lent, which begins on Clean Monday.[91] While the end of Lent is Lazarus Saturday, fasting does not end until Easter Sunday.[92] The Orthodox service begins late Saturday evening, observing the Jewish tradition that evening is the start of liturgical holy days.[92] Boris Kustodiev's Pascha Greetings (1912) shows traditional Russian khristosovanie (exchanging a triple kiss), with such foods as red eggs, kulich and paskha in the background. The church is darkened, then the priest lights a candle at midnight, representing the resurrection of Jesus Christ. Altar servers light additional candles, with a procession which moves three times around the church to represent the three days in the tomb.[92] The service continues early into Sunday morning, with a feast to end the fasting. An additional service is held later that day on Easter Sunday.[92] Non-observing Christian groups Many Puritans saw traditional feasts of the established Anglican Church, such as All Saints' Day and Easter, as an abomination.[93] The Puritan rejection of Easter traditions was (and is) based partly upon their interpretation of 2 Corinthians 6:14–16 and partly upon a more general belief that, if a religious practice or celebration is not actually written in the Christian Bible, then that practice/celebration must be a later development and cannot be considered an authentic part of Christian practice or belief—so at best simply unnecessary, at worst actually sinful. Members of the Religious Society of Friends (Quakers), as part of their historic testimony against times and seasons, do not celebrate or observe Easter or any traditional feast days of the established Church, believing instead that "every day is the Lord's day",[94] and that elevation of one day above others suggests that it is acceptable to do un-Christian acts on other days.[95] During the 17th and 18th centuries, Quakers were persecuted for this non-observance of Holy Days.[96] Groups such as the Restored Church of God and the Free Presbyterian Church of Scotland reject the celebration of Easter, seeing it as originating in a pagan spring festival taken over by the "Roman" Catholic Church.[97][98] Jehovah's Witnesses maintain a similar view, observing a yearly commemorative service of the Last Supper and the subsequent execution of Christ on the evening of Nisan 14 (as they calculate the dates derived from the lunar Hebrew Calendar). It is commonly referred to by many Witnesses as simply "The Memorial".[99] Jehovah's Witnesses believe that such verses as Luke 22:19–20 and 1 Corinthians 11:26 constitute a commandment to remember the death of Christ though not the resurrection,[99] and they do so on a yearly basis just as Passover is celebrated annually by the Jews. Some Christian groups feel that Easter is something to be regarded with great joy: not marking the day itself, but remembering and rejoicing in the event it commemorates—the miracle of Christ's resurrection. In this spirit, these Christians teach that each day and all Sabbaths should be kept holy, in Christ's teachings. Hebrew-Christian, Sacred Name, and Armstrong movement churches (such as the Living Church of God) usually reject Easter in favor of Nisan 14 observance and celebration of the Christian Passover. This is especially true of Christian groups that celebrate the New Moons or annual High Sabbaths in addition to seventh-day Sabbath. They support this textually with reference to the letter to the Colossians 2:16–17: "Let no man therefore judge you in meat, or in drink, or in respect of a feast day or a new moon or a sabbath day: which are a shadow of the things to come; but the body is Christ's." Easter celebrations around the world Main article: Easter customs In Christian countries where Christianity is a state religion, or where the country has large Christian population, Easter is often a public holiday. As Easter always falls on a Sunday, many countries in the world also have Easter Monday as a public holiday. Some retail stores, shopping malls, and restaurants are closed on Easter Sunday. Good Friday, which occurs two days before Easter Sunday, is also a public holiday in many countries, as well as in 12 U.S. states. Even in states where Good Friday is not a holiday, many financial institutions, stock markets, and public schools are closed. The few banks that are normally open on regular Sundays are closed on Easter. In the Nordic countries Good Friday, Easter Sunday and Easter Monday are public holidays,[100] and Good Friday and Easter Monday are bank holidays.[101] In Denmark, Iceland and Norway Maundy Thursday is also a public holiday. It is a holiday for most workers, except those operating some shopping malls which keep open for a half-day. Many businesses give their employees almost a week off, called Easter break.[102] Schools are closed between Palm Sunday and Easter Monday. According to a 2014 poll, 6 of 10 Norwegians travel during Easter, often to a countryside cottage; 3 of 10 said their typical Easter included skiing.[103] In the Netherlands both Easter Sunday and Easter Monday are national holidays. Like first and second Christmas Day, they are both considered Sundays, which results in a first and a second Easter Sunday, after which the week continues to a Tuesday.[104] Even though Good Friday is an official national holiday, it is not a mandatory day off for commercial companies. In Commonwealth nations Easter Day is rarely a public holiday, as is the case for celebrations which fall on a Sunday. In the United Kingdom both Good Friday and Easter Monday are bank holidays.[105] In Canada, Easter Monday is a statutory holiday for federal employees. In the Canadian province of Quebec, either Good Friday or Easter Monday are statutory holidays (although most companies give both). In some countries Good Friday is a public holiday as well. In Australia, because of its location in the southern hemisphere, Easter takes place in autumn. Hence, Australian Easter is associated with harvest time, rather than with the coming of spring as in the northern hemisphere. The religious aspect of Easter remains the same.[106] Good Friday and Easter Monday are public holidays across all states and territories. "Easter Saturday" (the Saturday before Easter Sunday) is a public holiday in every state except Tasmania and Western Australia, while Easter Sunday itself is a public holiday only in New South Wales. Easter Tuesday is additionally a conditional public holiday in Tasmania, varying between award, and was also a public holiday in Victoria until 1994.[107] In the United States, because Easter falls on a Sunday, which is already a non-working day for federal and state employees, it has not been designated as a federal or state holiday. Easter parades are held in many American cities, involving festive strolling processions,[108] with the New York City parade being the best known. Easter eggs Main article: Easter egg The egg is an ancient symbol of new life and rebirth. In Christianity it became associated with Jesus's crucifixion and resurrection.[109] The custom of the Easter egg originated in the early Christian community of Mesopotamia, who stained eggs red in memory of the blood of Christ, shed at his crucifixion.[110][111] As such, for Christians, the Easter egg is a symbol of the empty tomb.[17][18] The oldest tradition is to use dyed chicken eggs, but a modern custom is to substitute decorated chocolate, or plastic eggs filled with candy such as jellybeans; as many people give up sweets as their Lenten sacrifice, individuals enjoy them at Easter after having abstained from them during the preceding forty days of Lent.[112] Easter eggs are a widely popular symbol of new life in Poland and other Slavic countries' folk traditions. A batik-like decorating process known as pisanka produces intricate, brilliantly-colored eggs. The celebrated House of Fabergé workshops created exquisite jewelled Easter eggs for the Russian Imperial family from 1885 to 1916.[113]     Easter eggs, a symbol of the empty tomb, are a popular cultural symbol of Easter.[16]     Marshmallow rabbits, candy eggs and other treats in an Easter basket Manufacturing their first Easter egg in 1875, British chocolate company Cadbury sponsors the annual Easter egg hunt which takes place in over 250 National Trust locations in the United Kingdom.[114][115] On Easter Monday, the President of the United States holds an annual Easter egg roll on the White House lawn for young children.[116] Easter Bunny In some traditions the children put out their empty baskets for the Easter bunny to fill while they sleep. They wake to find their baskets filled with candy eggs and other treats. A custom originating in Germany, the Easter Bunny is a popular legendary anthropomorphic Easter gift-giving character analogous to Santa Claus in American culture. Many children around the world follow the tradition of coloring hard-boiled eggs and giving baskets of candy. Since the rabbit is a pest in Australia, the Easter Bilby is available as an alternative." (wikipedia.org) "Peeps are marshmallows sold in the United States and Canada that are shaped into chicks, bunnies, and other animals. There are also different shapes used for various holidays. Peeps are used primarily to fill Easter baskets, though recent[when?] advertising campaigns market the candy as "Peeps - Always in Season", as Peeps has since expanded to include Halloween, Christmas and Valentine's Day; since 2014 it has been available year-round with the introduction of Peeps Minis. They are made from sugar, corn syrup, gelatin, various food dyes and a pinch of salt.... History Peeps bunnies in an Easter basket Peeps are produced by Just Born,[1] a candy manufacturer founded in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, by Russian immigrant Sam Born (1891-1959). In 1953, Just Born acquired the Rodda Candy Company and its marshmallow chick line, and replaced the painstaking process of hand-forming the chicks with mass production.[2] When founder Sam Born would display a sign for his freshly made candy, he would title it "Just Born", playing off of his last name and the fact that he made his candy fresh daily.[3] According to Mary Bellis, the newly purchased company, Just Born, was soon the "largest marshmallow candy manufacturer in the world." New shapes other than the chicks were produced, following a theme according to the season starting in the 1960s. Twenty years later, the Marshmallow Peeps Bunny was released as a popular year-round shape of the candy.[4] The yellow chicks were the original form of the candy — hence their name — but then the company introduced other colors and, eventually, the myriad shapes in which they are now produced. Peeps were manufactured in different colors, such as lavender starting in 1995 and blue (allegedly) in 1998. Prior to that, they were only being produced in the traditional colors: yellow, pink and white. New flavors such as vanilla, strawberry, and chocolate were introduced between the years of 1999 and 2002.[5] In 2009, Just Born expanded the Peeps product line further by introducing Peeps Lip Balm in four flavors: grape, strawberry, vanilla, and cotton candy.[6] Just Born has come out with several other various accessories. Items such as nail polish, wrist bands, umbrellas, plush toys, golf gloves, earrings, and necklaces are produced and sold online and in retail stores. Other companies have produced items based on the popular Peeps candy. Peeps micro bead pillows were made by Kaboodle and conform to one's shape. The company Kaboodle promises that "they'll last a lot longer than their edible counterpart!"[7] Ranging from infant sizes to adult sizes, Peeps Halloween costumes can also be found on the shelves of several costume stores. The first Peeps & Co. store opened in November 2009 in National Harbor, Maryland, Prince George's County.[8] Peeps & Company retail stores were later opened in Minnesota (as of 2019, shut down due to low profits) and Pennsylvania.[9] In 2014, Peeps Minis were introduced, and were intended to be available year-round. Contests and competitions Orange pumpkin Halloween Peeps An annual "Peeps Eating" contest is held each year at National Harbor in front of the Peeps & Company store.[10]The 2017 winner, Matt Stonie of California, ate 255 Peeps in five minutes.[11] The first such event was arranged by Shawn Sparks in 1994, and had only six participants.[12] Dave Smith started an annual Peep Off in Sacramento after contacting a participant in the first Peep Off.[13][14] Another contest in Maryland asks that participants create a diorama of a culturally important scene from the modern era, featuring a number of Peeps. The winner gets two free inflatable life jackets.[15] Several newspapers hold annual contests in which readers submit photos of dioramas featuring Peeps. The St. Paul Pioneer Press was the first paper to hold such a contest.[citation needed] Similar contests are put on by The Chicago Tribune, and the Seattle Times. These contests frequently correspond with the Easter holiday. MIT also has a yearly Peeps contest. [16]The Washington Post held an annual contest until 2017, when it was discontinued. The smaller Washington City Paper introduced their contest in its place. The Racine Art Museum is sponsoring the International Peeps Competition from April 1–28. Anyone can enter the contest, centered on the theme "peep-powered work of art".[17] The following are other contests held in various states. Peeps jousting consists of putting two Marshmallow Chicks into the microwave and seeing which one gets the biggest and therefore affects/deforms the other. "Peepza" is a dessert pizza made with Peeps. Also, blogs were created according to Fox News entitled "101 Fun Ways to Torture a Peep."[18] Alleged indestructibility Peeps are sometimes jokingly described as "indestructible". In 1999 scientists at Emory University jokingly[19] performed experiments on batches of Peeps to see how easily they could be dissolved, burned or otherwise disintegrated, using such agents as cigarette smoke, boiling water and liquid nitrogen.[20] In addition to discussing whether Peeps migrate or evolve, they claimed that the eyes of the confectionery "wouldn't dissolve in anything".[21] One website claims that Peeps are insoluble in acetone, water, diluted sulfuric acid, and sodium hydroxide (the site also claims that the Peeps experimental subjects sign release forms).[22] Concentrated sulfuric acid seems to have effects similar to the expected effects of sulfuric acid on sugar.[23] This debate featured in an episode of the sitcom Malcolm in the Middle ("Traffic Jam"), in which Francis, insisting the "Quacks" (as they were called) would dissolve in his stomach rather than expand, takes up the dare to eat 100 of them and does so, but gets very sick in the process. As marshmallow ages exposed to air — it dehydrates, becoming "stale" and slightly crunchy. According to Just Born, 25%-30% of their customers prefer eating Peeps stale.[24] Public relations Barry Church, a football player for the Dallas Cowboys, was unable to attend training camp due to an unexpected root canal. Peeps offered Church a season's supply of their product—in that marshmallows are a lot softer on the teeth than the Jolly Ranchers which caused Church's requirement of a root canal.[25] Recipes using Peeps A coconut cake garnished with Peeps candy Several recipes and creative ideas to alter Peeps have been invented. Fox News Magazine published an article in 2013 including several recipes from various creators, including Peeps smores, Peeps pancakes, home-made chocolate covered Peeps, Peeps marshmallow chocolate chip cookies, Peeps brownies, Peeps popcorn, Peeps frosting, Peeps Krispie Treats, and Peeps syrup.[26] Peeps can also be used as a marshmallow topper for hot chocolate. [27] A recipe for "Peepshi" involves placing a Peep onto a Rice Krispie Treat and wrapping it in a Fruit by the Foot, to create a single "Peepshi roll" in the style of a sushi roll.[28] In April 2017, several internet and Twitter postings, and TV news stories claimed 'outrage' that Peeps were being used as a pizza topping.[29] In popular culture     On April 22, 2014, Adam Rifkin acquired the feature film and TV rights to the classic candies to make a franchise of it.[30]     In the 2000 Fox TV show Malcolm in the Middle episode "Traffic Jam", the candy is known as Quacks, of which Francis attempts to eat 100 of them to prove a skeptical cadet wrong, but ends up getting sick from it.     In the 2007 Comedy Central TV show South Park episode "Fantastic Easter Special", a man named Professor Teabag (who knows of an Easter conspiracy) helps Stan Marsh and Kyle Broflovski escape from some ninjas by putting Peeps in the microwave, causing an explosion that destroys the mansion and killing both him and the ninjas.     In 2007-2008, Peeps featured prominently in the Vlogbrothers video blog series, primarily serving as comedic fodder for punishments.     The fourth episode of the third season of The Good Place, "Jeremy Bearimy", includes a scene where the character Chidi Anagonye, played by William Jackson Harper, makes a pot of chili with some Peeps, which 'makes it taste bad'.     In 2015, Rapper Lil Peep used a picture of a purple Peeps candy as the album cover of his debut mixtape Lil Peep; Part One." (wikipedia.org) "OnlyFans is a content subscription service based in London, United Kingdom.[3] Content creators can earn money from users who subscribe to their content—the "fans".[4] It is popular with sex workers[5] but also hosts content creators from other genres such as physical fitness experts, musicians and other creators who post regularly online.[6] It allows content creators to receive funding directly from their fans on a monthly basis as well as one-time tips and the pay-per-view (PPV) feature.... Business model A fan of a content creator can view their content for a monthly subscription fee.[8] The company pays 80% of the fees collected to the content creator, retaining the remaining 20%.[9] After merchant and processing fees, the company's share is around 12%. History OnlyFans was launched in 2016[10] as a platform for performers to provide clips and photos to followers for a monthly subscription fee. Little is known about the parent company, Fenix International Ltd.[5] Two years later, Leonid Radvinsky, owner of MyFreeCams, acquired 75% ownership of Fenix and became its director.[11][12] In 2019, OnlyFans introduced an extra safeguard into the account verification process so that a creator now has to provide a selfie headshot with their ID in the image in order to prove that the ID provided belongs to the account holder.[13] As of April 2020, OnlyFans was valued at between $810,000,000 and $936,000,000, though estimates are difficult to ascertain as the company does not release its aggregate level data.[14] The site has over 24 million registered users and claims to have paid out US$725 million to its 450,000 content creators.[15] CEO Tim Stokely claimed OnlyFans receives "about 200,000 new users every 24 hours and 7,000 to 8,000 new creators joining every day."[16] OnlyFans has a partnership with Demon Time social media show to create a monetized virtual night club using the site's dual-screen live feature.[17] In January 2020, 20-year-old American Kaylen Ward raised more than US$1 million in contributions to charity during the wild bushfires in Australia. OnlyFans teamed with her for their first partnership for a charitable cause.[18] This started a trend with some OnlyFans creators who have been raising money through their accounts.[19] Controversy A BBC Three documentary alleged that a third of Twitter profiles globally advertising 'nudes4sale' (or similar) belong to underage individuals, many of whom used OnlyFans to share their content.[20][13] Bella Thorne earned $1 million in a day, sparking controversy In July 2020, Sky News reported that OnlyFans had not paid value-added tax the previous three years, and could face heavy penalties from tax authorities.[21] In August 2020, Forensic News reported that the company is facing multiple allegations of fraud and theft after content creators and users said they had money stolen from their accounts.[22] Following the platform's rapid growth, many scam videos appeared on sites like YouTube, promising "free" content and purporting to show viewers how to hack creators' accounts. Several videos garnered over a million views before being removed from YouTube. None provided the alleged "premium" service but rather aimed to increase traffic on apps unrelated to OnlyFans.[23] Around the same time, a massive supposed content leak occurred, though OnlyFans "found no evidence of any breach of our systems".[24] Bella Thorne set a new OnlyFans record when she earned over $1 million within 24 hours of joining the platform in August 2020 and more than $2 million in less than a week.[25] Her activities on OnlyFans sparked controversy after she allegedly promised nude photos for $200 but instead provided lingerie-clad photographs, leading to a slew of chargebacks. Following the debacle, new restrictions were introduced that limited the amount that other creators on the platform could charge and how quickly they could get paid,[26][27] though OnlyFans stated the restrictions were unrelated to Thorne but rather part of "an evolving process".[28] Thorne's actions caused backlash among sex workers who felt Thorne had selfishly appropriated their profession.[29][30] Usage Pornography is allowed. In fact, the website is mainly used by pornographic models,[5][31] both amateur and professional, but it also has a market with chefs, fitness enthusiasts, and musicians.[32] Users must be 18 years old to register, regardless of the content consumed." (wikipedia.org) "Novelty (derived from Latin word novus for "new") is the quality of being new, or following from that, of being striking, original or unusual.[1] Novelty may be the shared experience of a new cultural phenomenon or the subjective perception of an individual. From the meaning of being unusual usage is derived the concept of the novelty dance (a type of dance that is popular for being unusual or humorous); the novelty song (a musical item that capitalizes on something new, unusual, or a current fad); the novelty show (a competition or display in which exhibits or specimens are in way some novel); and novelty architecture (a building or other structure that is interesting because it has an amusing design). It is also this sense that applies to a novelty item, a small manufactured adornment, toy or collectible. These, in turn are often used as promotional merchandise in marketing.[2] The chess term, novelty, is used for a move in chess which has never been played before in a recorded game.[3] The term can have pejorative sense and refer to a mere innovation. However, novelty in patent law is part of the legal test to determine whether an invention is patentable.[4] A novelty effect is the tendency for performance to initially improve when new technology is instituted." (wikipedia.org) "Cursive (also known as script, among other names[a]) is any style of penmanship in which some characters are written joined together in a flowing manner, generally for the purpose of making writing faster, in contrast to block letters. Cursive handwriting is very functional, and is intended to be used in everyday writing. In addition, it is also used in art and calligraphy hand-lettering. Formal cursive is generally joined, but casual cursive is a combination of joins and pen lifts. The writing style can be further divided as "looped", "italic" or "connected". The cursive method is used with many alphabets due to infrequent pen lifting and beliefs that it increases writing speed. In some alphabets, many or all letters in a word are connected, sometimes making a word one single complex stroke. A study in 2013 discovered that speed of writing cursive is the same as print, regardless of which handwriting the child had learnt first.... Descriptions Cursive is a style of penmanship in which the symbols of the language are written in a conjoined and/or flowing manner, generally for the purpose of making writing faster. This writing style is distinct from "print-script" using block letters, in which the letters of a word are unconnected and in Roman/Gothic letter-form rather than joined-up script. Not all cursive copybooks join all letters: formal cursive is generally joined, but casual cursive is a combination of joins and pen lifts. In the Arabic, Syriac, Latin, and Cyrillic alphabets, many or all letters in a word are connected (while other must not), sometimes making a word one single complex stroke. In Hebrew cursive and Roman cursive, the letters are not connected. In Maharashtra, there is a version of cursive called 'Modi'. Subclasses Ligature Ligature is writing the letters of words with lines connecting the letters so that one does not have to pick up the pen or pencil between letters. Commonly some of the letters are written in a looped manner to facilitate the connections. In common printed Greek texts, the modern small letter fonts are called "cursive" (as opposed to uncial) though the letters do not connect. Looped The first verse of "Good King Wenceslas" in cursive Looped cursive as taught in Britain in the mid-20th century In looped cursive penmanship, some ascenders and descenders have loops which provide for joins. This is generally what people refer to when they say "cursive".[citation needed] Italic Cursive italic penmanship—derived from chancery cursive—uses non-looped joins or no joins. In italic cursive, there are no joins from g, j, q, or y, and a few other joins are discouraged.[2][failed verification] Italic penmanship became popular in the 15th-century Italian Renaissance. The term "italic" as it relates to handwriting is not to be confused with italic typed letters. Many, but not all, letters in the handwriting of the Renaissance were joined, as most are today in cursive italic. Origin The origins of the cursive method are associated with practical advantages of writing speed and infrequent pen-lifting to accommodate the limitations of the quill. Quills are fragile, easily broken, and will spatter unless used properly. They also run out of ink faster than most contemporary writing utensils. Steel dip pens followed quills; they were sturdier, but still had some limitations. The individuality of the provenance of a document (see Signature) was a factor also, as opposed to machine font.[3] Cursive was also favored because the writing tool was rarely taken off the paper. The term cursive derives from Middle French cursif from Medieval Latin cursivus, which literally means running. This term in turn derives from Latin currere ("to run, hasten").[4] Although the use of cursive appeared to be on the decline, it now seems to be coming back into use.[5] Bengali Half of the National Anthem of Bangladesh, written in cursive Bengali In Bengali cursive script[6] (also known in Bengali as "professional writing"[citation needed]) the letters are more likely to be more curvy in appearance than in standard Bengali handwriting. Also, the horizontal supporting bar on each letter (matra) runs continuously through the entire word, unlike in standard handwriting. This cursive handwriting often used by literature experts differs in appearance from the standard Bengali alphabet as it is free hand writing, where sometimes the alphabets are complex and appear different from the standard handwriting.[citation needed] Roman Main article: Roman cursive Example of old Roman cursive Roman cursive is a form of handwriting (or a script) used in ancient Rome and to some extent into the Middle Ages. It is customarily divided into old (or ancient) cursive, and new cursive. Old Roman cursive, also called majuscule cursive and capitalis cursive, was the everyday form of handwriting used for writing letters, by merchants writing business accounts, by schoolchildren learning the Latin alphabet, and even by emperors issuing commands. New Roman, also called minuscule cursive or later cursive, developed from old cursive. It was used from approximately the 3rd century to the 7th century, and uses letter forms that are more recognizable to modern eyes; "a", "b", "d", and "e" have taken a more familiar shape, and the other letters are proportionate to each other rather than varying wildly in size and placement on a line. Greek Main article: History of the Greek alphabet Ancient Greek cursive script, 6th century CE The Greek alphabet has had several cursive forms in the course of its development. In antiquity, a cursive form of handwriting was used in writing on papyrus. It employed slanted and partly connected letter forms as well as many ligatures. Some features of this handwriting were later adopted into Greek minuscule, the dominant form of handwriting in the medieval and early modern era. In the 19th and 20th centuries, an entirely new form of cursive Greek, more similar to contemporary Western European cursive scripts, was developed. Western Europe English Cursive in English letter from 1894 William Shakespeare's will, written in secretary hand[7] Cursive writing was used in English before the Norman conquest. Anglo-Saxon Charters typically include a boundary clause written in Old English in a cursive script. A cursive handwriting style—secretary hand—was widely used for both personal correspondence and official documents in England from early in the 16th century. Cursive handwriting developed into something approximating its current form from the 17th century, but its use was neither uniform, nor standardized either in England itself or elsewhere in the British Empire. In the English colonies of the early 17th century, most of the letters are clearly separated in the handwriting of William Bradford, though a few were joined as in a cursive hand. In England itself, Edward Cocker had begun to introduce a version of the French ronde style, which was then further developed and popularized throughout the British Empire in the 17th and 18th centuries as round hand by John Ayers and William Banson.[8] In the American colonies, on the eve of their independence from the Kingdom of Great Britain, it is notable that Thomas Jefferson joined most, but not all the letters when drafting the United States Declaration of Independence. However, a few days later, Timothy Matlack professionally re-wrote the presentation copy of the Declaration in a fully joined, cursive hand. Eighty-seven years later, in the middle of the 19th century, Abraham Lincoln drafted the Gettysburg Address in a cursive hand that would not look out of place today. Not all such cursive, then or now, joined all of the letters within a word. Cursive handwriting from the 19th-century USA. In both the British Empire and the United States in the 18th and 19th centuries, before the typewriter, professionals used cursive for their correspondence. This was called a "fair hand", meaning it looked good, and firms trained their clerks to write in exactly the same script. In the early days[when?] of the post office, letters were written in cursive – and to fit more text on a single sheet, the text was continued in lines crossing at 90 degrees from the original text.[9] Block letters were not suitable for this.[citation needed] Although women's handwriting had noticeably different particulars from men's, the general forms were not prone to rapid change. In the mid-19th century, most children were taught the contemporary cursive; in the United States, this usually occurred in second or third grade (around ages seven to nine). Few simplifications appeared as the middle of the 20th century approached.[citation needed] After the 1960s, a movement originally begun by Paul Standard in the 1930s to replace looped cursive with cursive italic penmanship resurfaced. It was motivated by the claim that cursive instruction was more difficult than it needed to be: that conventional (looped) cursive was unnecessary, and it was easier to write in cursive italic. Because of this, a number of various new forms of cursive italic appeared, including Getty-Dubay, and Barchowsky Fluent Handwriting. In the 21st century, some of the surviving cursive writing styles are Spencerian, Palmer Method, D'Nealian, and Zaner-Bloser script.[10] Decline of English cursive in the United States     This section's tone or style may not reflect the encyclopedic tone used on Wikipedia. See Wikipedia's guide to writing better articles for suggestions. (August 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) D'Nealian Script, a cursive alphabet, shown in lower case and upper case See also: Cursive handwriting instruction in the United States One of the earliest forms of new technology that caused the decline of handwriting was the invention of the ballpoint pen, patented in 1888 by John Loud. Two brothers, László and György Bíró, further developed the pen by changing the design and using different ink that dried quickly. With their design, it was guaranteed that the ink would not smudge, as it would with the earlier design of pen, and it no longer required the careful penmanship one would use with the older design of pen. After World War II, the ballpoint pen was mass-produced and sold for a cheap price, changing the way people wrote. Over time the emphasis of using the style of cursive to write slowly declined,[quantify] only to be later impacted by other technologies such as the phone, computer, and keyboard.[11][12] Cursive has been in decline throughout the 21st century due to its perceived lack of necessity. The Fairfax Education Association, the largest teachers' union in Fairfax County, Virginia, has called cursive a "dying art". Many consider cursive too tedious to learn and believe that it is not a useful skill.[13][14] On the 2006 SAT, a United States post-secondary education entrance exam, only 15 percent of the students wrote their essay answers in cursive.[15] However, students might be discouraged from using cursive on standardized tests due to exams written in hard-to-read handwriting receiving fewer marks, and some graders may have difficulties reading cursive.[16] In 2007, a survey of 200 teachers of first through third grades in all 50 American states, 90 percent of respondents said their schools required the teaching of cursive.[17] A nationwide survey in 2008 found elementary school teachers lacking formal training in teaching handwriting to students. Only 12 percent of teachers reported having taken a course in how to teach it.[18] In 2012, the American states of Indiana and Hawaii announced that their schools will no longer be required to teach cursive (but will still be permitted to), and instead will be required to teach "keyboard proficiency". Since the nationwide proposal of the Common Core State Standards in 2009, which do not include instruction in cursive, the standards have been adopted by 44 states as of July 2011, all of which have debated whether to augment them with cursive.[19][20] Conservation efforts and cognitive benefits Many historical documents, such as the United States Constitution, are written in cursive—the inability to read cursive therefore precludes one from being able to fully appreciate such documents in their original format.[21] Despite the decline in the day-to-day use of cursive, it is being reintroduced to the curriculum of schools in the United States. States such as California, Idaho, Kansas, Massachusetts, North Carolina, South Carolina, New Jersey, and Tennessee have already mandated cursive in schools as a part of the Back to Basics program designed to maintain the integrity of cursive handwriting.[22] Cursive instruction is required by grade 5 in Illinois, starting with the 2018–2019 school year.[23] Some[who?] argue that cursive is not worth teaching in schools and "in the 1960s cursive was implemented because of preference and not an educational basis; Hawaii and Indiana have replaced cursive instruction with 'keyboard proficiency' and 44 other states are currently weighing similar measures."[24] With the widespread use of computers, researchers set out to test the effectiveness of both mediums. In a study done by Pam Mueller which compared scores of students who took notes by hand and via laptop computer showed that students who took notes by hand (though the paper does not specify that they were using cursive) showed advantages in both factual and conceptual learning.[25] Another study done by Anne Mangen showed that children showed an acceleration in learning new words when they wrote them by hand rather than on a computer screen.[26] Learning to write in cursive is alleged (by its practitioners) to be a stepping stone to developing neat handwriting, and, in a third study conducted by Florida International University, professor Laura Dinehart concluded that students with neater handwriting tend to develop better reading and writing skills, though it is difficult to conclude causation from such an association.[13] Aside from these cognitive benefits, students with dyslexia, who have difficulty learning to read because their brains have difficulty associating sounds and letter combinations efficiently, have found that cursive can help them with the decoding process because it integrates hand-eye coordination, fine motor skills and other brain and memory functions.[27] However, students with dysgraphia may be badly served, or even substantially hindered, by demands for cursive.[28] German Alphabet sample of German "Kurrentschrift" Alphabet sample of German "Vereinfachte Ausgangsschrift" Kurrent (left, pre-19th century) and Vereinfachte Ausgangsschrift (right, from 1969) Up to the 19th century, Kurrent (also known as German cursive) was used in German-language longhand. Kurrent was not used exclusively, but rather in parallel to modern cursive (which is the same as English cursive). Writers used both cursive styles: location, contents and context of the text determined which style to use. A successor of Kurrent, Sütterlin, was widely used in the period 1911–1941 until the Nazi Party banned it and its printed equivalent Fraktur. German speakers brought up with Sütterlin continued to use it well into the post-war period. Today, three different styles of cursive writing are taught in German schools, the Lateinische Ausgangsschrift [de] (introduced in 1953), the Schulausgangsschrift [de] (1968), and the Vereinfachte Ausgangsschrift (1969).[29] The German National Primary Schoolteachers' Union has proposed replacing all three with Grundschrift, a simplified form of non-cursive handwriting adopted by Hamburg schools.[30] Russian The standard modern Russian Cyrillic cursive alphabet with uppercase and lowercase letters, used in school education Main article: Russian cursive The Russian Cursive Cyrillic alphabet is used (instead of the block letters) when handwriting the modern Russian language. While several letters resemble Latin counterparts, many of them represent different sounds. Most handwritten Russian, especially personal letters and schoolwork, uses the cursive Russian (Cyrillic) alphabet, although use of block letters in private writing has been rising.[citation needed] Most children in Russian schools are taught in the 1st grade how to write using this Russian script. Chinese Cursive forms of Chinese characters are used in calligraphy; "running script" is the semi-cursive form and "rough script" (mistakenly called "grass script" due to misinterpretation) is the cursive. The running aspect of this script has more to do with the formation and connectedness of strokes within an individual character than with connections between characters as in Western connected cursive. The latter are rare in hanzi and in the derived Japanese kanji characters which are usually well separated by the writer." (wikipedia.org) "The sex industry (also called the sex trade) consists of businesses that either directly or indirectly provide sex-related products and services or adult entertainment. The industry includes activities involving direct provision of sex-related services, such as prostitution, strip clubs, host and hostess clubs and sex-related pastimes, such as pornography, sex-oriented men's magazines, sex movies, sex toys and fetish and BDSM paraphernalia. Sex channels for television and pre-paid sex movies for video on demand, are part of the sex industry, as are adult movie theaters, sex shops, peep shows, and strip clubs.... Etymology The origins of the term sex industry are uncertain, but it appears to have arisen in the 1970s. A 1977 report by the Ontario Royal Commission on Violence in the Communications Industry (LaMarsh Commission) quoted author Peter McCabe as writing in Argosy: "Ten years ago the sex industry did not exist. When people talked of commercial sex they meant Playboy."[2] A 1976 article in The New York Times by columnist Russell Baker claimed that "[M]ost of the problems created by New York City's booming sex industry result from the city's reluctance to treat it as an industry", arguing why sex shops constituted an "industry", and should be treated as such by concentrating them in a single neighborhood,[3] suggesting the "sex industry" was not yet commonly recognized as such. Prostitution Main article: Prostitution Prostitution is a main component of the sex industry and may take place in a brothel, at a facility provided by the prostitute, at a client's hotel room, in a parked car, or on the street. Often this is arranged through a pimp or an escort agency. Prostitution involves a prostitute or sex worker providing commercial sexual services to a client.[4] In some cases, the prostitute is at liberty to determine whether she or he will engage in a particular type of sexual activity, but forced prostitution and sexual slavery does exist in some places around the world.[5] Reasons as to why an individual may enter into prostitution are varied. Socialist and radical feminists have cited poverty, oppressive capitalistic processes, and patriarchal societies that marginalizes people based on race and class as reasons for the continued presence of prostitution, as these aspects all work together to maintain oppression.[6] Other reasons include displacement due to conflict and war.[7][6][8][9][10] Institutionalized racism in the United States has been cited as a reason for the prevalence of sex workers who are Black or other people of color, as this leads to inequality and a lack of access to resources.[6] The legality of prostitution and associated activities (soliciting, brothels, procuring) varies by jurisdiction. Yet even where it is illegal, a thriving underground business usually exists because of high demand and the high income that can be made by pimps, brothel owners, escort agencies, and traffickers.[11] A brothel is a commercial establishment where people may engage in sexual activity with a prostitute,[12] though for legal or cultural reasons they may describe themselves as massage parlors, bars, strip clubs or by some other description. Sex work in a brothel is considered safer than street prostitution.[13] Prostitution and the operation of brothels are legal in some countries, but illegal in others. For instance, there are legal brothels in Nevada, USA, due to the legalization of prostitution in some areas of the state.[14] In countries where prostitution and brothels are legal, brothels may be subject to many and varied restrictions. Forced prostitution is usually illegal as is prostitution by or with minors, though the age may vary. Some countries prohibit particular sex acts. In some countries, brothels are subject to strict planning restrictions and in some cases are confined to designated red-light districts. Some countries prohibit or regulate how brothels advertise their services, or they may prohibit the sale or consumption of alcohol on the premises. In some countries where operating a brothel is legal, some brothel operators may choose to operate illegally. Some men and women may travel away from their home to engage with local prostitutes, in a practice called sex tourism, though the destination pattern tends to differ between them.[15] Male sex tourism can create or augment demand for sex services in the host countries, while female sex tourism tends not to use existing sex facilities.[15] Like tourism in general, sex tourism can make a significant contribution to local economies, especially in popular urban centers. Sex tourism may arise as a result of stringent anti-prostitution laws in a tourist's home country, but can create social problems in the host country. Businesses that offer prostitution services tend to cluster around military bases. The British naval port of Portsmouth had a flourishing local sex industry in the 19th century, and until the early 1990s there were large red light districts near American military bases in the Philippines. The Monto red-light district of Dublin, one of the largest in Europe, gained most of its custom from the British soldiers stationed in the city; indeed it collapsed after Irish independence was achieved and the soldiers left. The notorious Patpong entertainment district in Bangkok, and the city of Pattaya, Thailand, started as R&R locations for US troops serving in the Vietnam War in the early 1970s. Prostitution is extremely prevalent in Asia, particularly in Southeast Asian nations such as Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, and Thailand.[16] Due to the longstanding economic instability of many of these nations, increasing numbers of women have been forced to turn towards the sex industry there for work. According to Lin Lim, an International Labour Organization official who directed a study on prostitution in Southeast Asia, "it is very likely that women who lose their jobs in manufacturing and other service sectors and whose families rely on their remittances may be driven to enter the sex sector."[16] The sex industry of these countries has consequently grown to become their dominant commercial sector. Conversely, the sex industry in China has been revived by the nation's recent economic success. The nation's liberal economic policies in the early 1980s have been credited with revitalizing the sex industry as rural communities rapidly expand into highly developed urban centers.[17] A typical example of this can be found in the city of Dalian. The city was declared a special economic zone in 1984; by the twenty-first century what had been a small fishing community developed an advanced commercial sector and a correspondingly large sex industry.[17] A large portion of China's sex workers are immigrants from other Asian nations, such as Korea and Japan.[18] In spite of these circumstances, most Asian countries do not have strong policies regarding prostitution. Their governments are challenged in this regard because of the differing contexts that surround prostitution, from voluntary and financially beneficial labor to virtual slavery. The increasing economic prominence of China and Japan have made these issues a global concern.[16] As a result of Southeast Asia's lax policies regarding prostitution,[16] the region has also become a hotbed for sex tourism, with a significant portion of this industry's clients being North American or European.[19] Other participants The sex industry employs millions of people worldwide,[20] mainly women. These range from the sex worker, also called adult service provider (ASP) or adult sex provider, who provides sexual services, to a multitude of support personnel. Sex workers can be prostitutes, call girls, pornographic film actors, pornographic models, sex show performers, erotic dancers, striptease dancers, bikini baristas, telephone sex operators, cybersex operators, or amateur porn stars for online sex sessions and videos. In addition, like any other industry, there are people who work in or service the sex industry as managers, film crews, photographers, website developers and webmasters, sales personnel, book and magazine writers and editors, etc. Some create business models, negotiate trade, make press releases, draw up contracts with other owners, buy and sell content, offer technical support, run servers, billing services, or payroll, organize trade shows and various events, do marketing and sales forecasts, provide human resources, or provide tax services and legal support. Usually, those in management or staff do not have direct dealings with sex workers, instead hiring photographers who have direct contact with the sex workers. Pornography is professionally marketed and sold to adult webmasters for distribution on the Internet. Other members of the sex industry include the hostesses that work in many bars in China. These hostesses are women who are hired by men to sit with them and provide them with company, which entails drinking and making conversation, while the men flirt and make sexual comments.[21] A number of these hostesses also offer sexual services at offsite locations to the men who hire them. Although this is not done by every woman who works as a hostess in the bars of China, the hostesses are all generally labeled as "grey women". This means that while they are not seen as prostitutes, they are not considered suitable marriage partners for many men. Other woman who are included in the "grey women" category are the permanent mistresses or "second wives" that many Chinese businessmen have.[21] The Chinese government makes efforts to keep secret the fact that many of these hostesses are also prostitutes and make up a significant part of the sex industry. They do not want China's image in the rest of the world to become sullied. Hostesses are given a significant degree of freedom to choose whether or not they would like to service a client sexually, although a refusal does sometimes spark conflict.[22] Pornography Main article: Pornography Two porn actors preparing to shoot a scene for an adult film. Pornography is the explicit portrayal of explicit sexual subject matter for the purposes of sexual arousal and erotic satisfaction. A pornographic model poses for pornographic photographs. A pornographic film actor or porn star performs in pornographic films. In cases where only limited dramatic skills are involved, a performer in pornographic films may be called a pornographic model. Pornography can be provided to the consumer in a variety of media, ranging from books, magazines, postcards, photos, sculpture, drawing, painting, animation, sound recording, film, video, or video game. However, when sexual acts are performed for a live audience, by definition it is not pornography, as the term applies to the depiction of the act, rather than the act itself. Thus, portrayals such as sex shows and striptease are not classified as pornography. The first home-PCs capable of network communication prompted the arrival of online services for adults in the late 1980s and early 1990s. The wide-open early days of the World Wide Web quickly snowballed into the dot-com boom, in-part fueled by an incredible global increase in the demand for and consumption of pornography and erotica. Around 2009, the U.S. porn industry's revenue of $10–15 billion a year was more than the combined revenue of professional sports and live music combined and roughly on par or above Hollywood's box office revenue.[23][24] There is mixed evidence on the social impact of pornography. Some insights come from meta-analyses synthesizing data from prior research. A 2015 meta-analysis indicated that pornography consumption is correlated with sexual aggression.[25] However, it is unknown if pornography promotes, reduces or has no effect on sexual aggression at an individual level, because this correlation may not be causal. In fact, counter intuitively, pornography has been found to reduce sexual aggression at a societal level. A 2009 review stated that all scientific investigations of increases in the availability of pornography show no change or a decrease in the level of sexual offending.[26] The question of whether pornography consumption affects consumers' happiness was addressed by a 2017 meta-analysis. It concluded that men who consume pornography are less satisfied with some areas of their lives, but pornography consumption does not make a significant difference in other areas, or to the lives of women.[27] Additionally, a sample of Americans revealed in 2017 that those who had viewed pornography were more likely to experience romantic relationship breakup than their non-pornography watching counterparts, and that the effect was more pronounced with men.[28] Use of children While the legality of adult sexual entertainment varies by country, the use of children in the sex industry is illegal nearly everywhere in the world. Commercial sexual exploitation of children (CSEC) is the "sexual abuse by the adult and remuneration in cash or kind to the child or a third person or persons. The child is treated as a sexual object and as a commercial object".[29] CSEC includes the prostitution of children, child pornography, child sex tourism and other forms of transactional sex where a child engages in sexual activities to have key needs fulfilled, such as food, shelter or access to education. It includes forms of transactional sex where the sexual abuse of children is not stopped or reported by household members, due to benefits derived by the household from the perpetrator. CSEC is prevalent in Asia and parts of Latin America. Thailand, Cambodia, India, Brazil and Mexico have been identified as the primary countries where the commercial sexual exploitation of children takes place.[30] Certain places around the world are recognized for child sex tourism. [7] Adult entertainment Adult entertainment is entertainment intended to be viewed by adults only, and distinguished from family entertainment. The style of adult entertainment may be ribaldry or bawdry. Any entertainment that normally includes sexual content qualifies as adult entertainment, including sex channels for television and pre-paid sex films for "on demand", as well as adult movie theaters, sex shops, and strip clubs. It also includes sex-oriented men's magazines, sex movies, sex toys and fetish and BDSM paraphernalia. Opposition Further information: Opposition to pornography and Sexual ethics The sex industry is very controversial, and many people, organizations and governments have strong moral objections to it, and, as a result, pornography, prostitution, striptease and other similar occupations are illegal in many countries. The term anti-pornography movement is used to describe those who argue that pornography has a variety of harmful effects on society, such as encouragement of human trafficking, desensitization, pedophilia, dehumanization, exploitation, sexual dysfunction, and inability to maintain healthy sexual relationships. Sociological objections Dolf Zillmann asserts that extensive viewing of pornographic material produces many sociological effects which he characterizes as unfavorable, including a decreased respect for long-term, monogamous relationships, and an attenuated desire for procreation.[31] He claims that pornography can "potentially undermine the traditional values that favor marriage, family, and children" and that it depicts sexuality in a way which is not connected to "emotional attachment, of kindness, of caring, and especially not of continuance of the relationship, as such continuance would translate into responsibilities".[32][full citation needed] Additionally, some researchers claim that pornography causes unequivocal harm to society by increasing rates of sexual assault,[31][33] a line of research which has been critiqued in "The effects of Pornography: An International Perspective" on external validity grounds,[34] while others claim there is a correlation between pornography and a decrease of sex crimes.[35][36][37] Immigration and sex tourism Main articles: Migrant sex work and Sex tourism Some researchers have claimed that sex workers can benefit from their profession in terms of immigration status. In her essay "Selling Sex for Visas: Sex Tourism as a Stepping-Stone to International Migration" anthropologist Denise Brennan cited an example of prostitutes in the Dominican Republic resort town of Sosúa, where some female prostitutes marry their customers in order to immigrate to other countries and seek a better life.[38] The customers are, however, the ones that hold the power in this situation as they can withhold or revoke the sex worker's visa, either denying them the ability to immigrate or forcing them to return to their country of origin.[38] Some customers see sex workers from other countries as exotic commodities that can be fetishized or exploited.[38] Sex workers are also at risk of judgement from family members and relatives for having been associated with the sex tourism industry. It also must be noted that migrant sex work happens due to globalization. Globalization has produced growth both in sex tourism and in the migration of women to places where the sex industry thrives.[39] Homophobia in sex work Recently, LGBTQ+ communities have welcomed the creation of sex work through a homosexual lens. However, there have also been repercussions within this community due to the brutal treatment of the workers.[40] Many producers and proponents of pornography featuring gay actors claim that this work is liberating and offers them a voice in popular media while critics view it as a degradation of the eroticization of inequality and that advocates for this new line of cinema are only creating a new barrier for homosexuals to contend with.[40] Feminist objections Main articles: Feminist views on prostitution and Feminist views on pornography British feminist and political theorist Carole Pateman, who has condemned the commodification of women caused by the sex industry Feminism is divided on the issue of the sex industry. In her essay "What is wrong with prostitution", Carole Pateman makes the point that it is literally the objectification of woman. They are making their bodies an object that men can buy for a price. She also makes the point that prostitution and many other sex industries reinforce the idea of male ownership of a woman. On the other hand, some other feminists see the sex industry as empowering women. They could be seen as simply jobs. The woman who is working them are breaking free from social norms that would previously keep their sexuality under wraps as immoral.[41] Based on these arguments, Sweden, Norway and Iceland have criminalized the buying of sexual services, while decriminalizing the selling of sexual services.[42] (In other words, clients and pimps can be prosecuted for moneyed sexual transactions, but not prostitutes). Supporter of this model of legislation claim reduced illegal prostitution and human trafficking in these countries.[43] Opponents dispute these claims.[44] Some feminists, such as Gail Dines, are opposed to pornography, arguing that it is an industry which exploits women and which is complicit in violence against women, both in its production (where they charge that abuse and exploitation of women performing in pornography are rampant) and in its consumption (where they charge that pornography eroticizes the domination, humiliation, and coercion of women, and reinforces sexual and cultural attitudes that are complicit in rape and sexual harassment). They charge that pornography contributes to the male-centered objectification of women and thus to sexism. However, other feminists are opposed to censorship, and have argued against the introduction of anti-porn legislation in the United States—among them Betty Friedan, Kate Millett, Karen DeCrow, Wendy Kaminer and Jamaica Kincaid.[45] Other objections The sex industry often raises criticism because it is sometimes connected to criminal activities such as human trafficking, illegal immigration, drug abuse, and exploitation of children (child pornography, child prostitution). The sex industry also raises concerns about the spread of STDs." (wikipedia.org) "Lighting or illumination is the deliberate use of light to achieve practical or aesthetic effects. Lighting includes the use of both artificial light sources like lamps and light fixtures, as well as natural illumination by capturing daylight. Daylighting (using windows, skylights, or light shelves) is sometimes used as the main source of light during daytime in buildings. This can save energy in place of using artificial lighting, which represents a major component of energy consumption in buildings. Proper lighting can enhance task performance, improve the appearance of an area, or have positive psychological effects on occupants. Indoor lighting is usually accomplished using light fixtures, and is a key part of interior design. Lighting can also be an intrinsic component of landscape projects.... History With the discovery of fire, the earliest form of artificial lighting used to illuminate an area were campfires or torches. As early as 400,000 BCE, fire was kindled in the caves of Peking Man. Prehistoric people used primitive oil lamps to illuminate surroundings. These lamps were made from naturally occurring materials such as rocks, shells, horns and stones, were filled with grease, and had a fiber wick. Lamps typically used animal or vegetable fats as fuel. Hundreds of these lamps (hollow worked stones) have been found in the Lascaux caves in modern-day France, dating to about 15,000 years ago. Oily animals (birds and fish) were also used as lamps after being threaded with a wick. Fireflies have been used as lighting sources. Candles and glass and pottery lamps were also invented.[1] Chandeliers were an early form of "light fixture". A major reduction in the cost of lighting occurred with the discovery of whale oil.[2] The use of whale oil declined after Abraham Gesner, a Canadian geologist, first refined kerosene in the 1840s, allowing brighter light to be produced at substantially lower cost.[3] In the 1850s, the price of whale oil dramatically increased (more than doubling from 1848 to 1856) due to shortages of available whales, hastening whale oil's decline.[3] By 1860, there were 33 kerosene plants in the United States, and Americans spent more on gas and kerosene than on whale oil.[3] The final death knell for whale oil was in 1859, when crude oil was discovered and the petroleum industry arose.[3] Gas lighting was economical enough to power street lights in major cities starting in the early 1800s, and was also used in some commercial buildings and in the homes of wealthy people. The gas mantle boosted the luminosity of utility lighting and of kerosene lanterns. The next major drop in price came about in the 1880s with the introduction of electric lighting in the form of arc lights for large space and street lighting, followed by incandescent light bulb-based utilities for indoor and outdoor lighting.[2][4] Over time, electric lighting became ubiquitous in developed countries.[5] Segmented sleep patterns disappeared, improved nighttime lighting made more activities possible at night, and more street lights reduced urban crime.[6][7][8] Fixtures Main article: Light fixture Lighting fixtures come in a wide variety of styles for various functions. The most important functions are as a holder for the light source, to provide directed light and to avoid visual glare. Some are very plain and functional, while some are pieces of art in themselves. Nearly any material can be used, so long as it can tolerate the excess heat and is in keeping with safety codes. An important property of light fixtures is the luminous efficacy or wall-plug efficiency, meaning the amount of usable light emanating from the fixture per used energy, usually measured in lumen per watt. A fixture using replaceable light sources can also have its efficiency quoted as the percentage of light passed from the "bulb" to the surroundings. The more transparent the lighting fixtures are, the higher efficacy. Shading the light will normally decrease efficacy but increase the directionality and the visual comfort probability. Color temperature for white light sources also affects their use for certain applications. The color temperature of a white light source is the temperature in kelvins of a theoretical black body emitter that most closely matches the spectral characteristics of the lamp. An incandescent bulb has a color temperature around 2800 to 3000 kelvins; daylight is around 6400 kelvins. Lower color temperature lamps have relatively more energy in the yellow and red part of the visible spectrum, while high color temperatures correspond to lamps with more of a blue-white appearance. For critical inspection or color matching tasks, or for retail displays of food and clothing, the color temperature of the lamps will be selected for the best overall lighting effect. Types See also: List of types of lighting A demonstration of the effects of different kinds of lighting Lighting is classified by intended use as general, accent, or task lighting, depending largely on the distribution of the light produced by the fixture.     Task lighting is mainly functional and is usually the most concentrated, for purposes such as reading or inspection of materials. For example, reading poor-quality reproductions may require task lighting levels up to 1500 lux (150 footcandles), and some inspection tasks or surgical procedures require even higher levels.     Accent lighting is mainly decorative, intended to highlight pictures, plants, or other elements of interior design or landscaping.     General lighting (sometimes referred to as ambient light) fills in between the two and is intended for general illumination of an area. Indoors, this would be a basic lamp on a table or floor, or a fixture on the ceiling. Outdoors, general lighting for a parking lot may be as low as 10-20 lux (1-2 footcandles) since pedestrians and motorists already used to the dark will need little light for crossing the area. Methods     Downlighting is most common, with fixtures on or recessed in the ceiling casting light downward. This tends to be the most used method, used in both offices and homes. Although it is easy to design, it has dramatic problems with glare and excess energy consumption due to large number of fittings.[9] The introduction of LED lighting has greatly improved this by approx. 90% when compared to a halogen downlight or spotlight. LED lamps or bulbs are now available to retro fit in place of high energy consumption lamps.     Uplighting is less common, often used to bounce indirect light off the ceiling and back down. It is commonly used in lighting applications that require minimal glare and uniform general illuminance levels. Uplighting (indirect) uses a diffuse surface to reflect light in a space and can minimize disabling glare on computer displays and other dark glossy surfaces. It gives a more uniform presentation of the light output in operation. However indirect lighting is completely reliant upon the reflectance value of the surface. While indirect lighting can create a diffused and shadow free light effect it can be regarded as an uneconomical lighting principle.[10][11]     Front lighting is also quite common, but tends to make the subject look flat as its casts almost no visible shadows. Lighting from the side is the less common, as it tends to produce glare near eye level.     Backlighting either around or through an object is mainly for accent. Backlighting is used to illuminate a background or backdrop. This adds depth to an image or scene. Others use it to achieve a more dramatic effect. Wall-mounted light with shadows Forms of lighting Indoor lighting Forms of lighting include alcove lighting, which like most other uplighting is indirect. This is often done with fluorescent lighting (first available at the 1939 World's Fair) or rope light, occasionally with neon lighting, and recently with LED strip lighting. It is a form of backlighting. Soffit or close to wall lighting can be general or a decorative wall-wash, sometimes used to bring out texture (like stucco or plaster) on a wall, though this may also show its defects as well. The effect depends heavily on the exact type of lighting source used. Recessed lighting (often called "pot lights" in Canada, "can lights" or 'high hats" in the US) is popular, with fixtures mounted into the ceiling structure so as to appear flush with it. These downlights can use narrow beam spotlights, or wider-angle floodlights, both of which are bulbs having their own reflectors. There are also downlights with internal reflectors designed to accept common 'A' lamps (light bulbs) which are generally less costly than reflector lamps. Downlights can be incandescent, fluorescent, HID (high intensity discharge) or LED. Track lighting, invented by Lightolier,[12] was popular at one period of time because it was much easier to install than recessed lighting, and individual fixtures are decorative and can be easily aimed at a wall. It has regained some popularity recently in low-voltage tracks, which often look nothing like their predecessors because they do not have the safety issues that line-voltage systems have, and are therefore less bulky and more ornamental in themselves. A master transformer feeds all of the fixtures on the track or rod with 12 or 24 volts, instead of each light fixture having its own line-to-low voltage transformer. There are traditional spots and floods, as well as other small hanging fixtures. A modified version of this is cable lighting, where lights are hung from or clipped to bare metal cables under tension. A sconce is a wall-mounted fixture, particularly one that shines up and sometimes down as well. A torchère is an uplight intended for ambient lighting. It is typically a floor lamp but may be wall-mounted like a sconce. Further interior light fixtures include chandeliers, pendant lights, ceiling fans with lights, close-to-ceiling or flush lights, and various types of lamps[13] The portable or table lamp is probably the most common fixture, found in many homes and offices. The standard lamp and shade that sits on a table is general lighting, while the desk lamp is considered task lighting. Magnifier lamps are also task lighting. Animated fountain in Moscow's Square of Europe, lit at night The illuminated ceiling was once popular in the 1960s and 1970s but fell out of favor after the 1980s. This uses diffuser panels hung like a suspended ceiling below fluorescent lights, and is considered general lighting. Other forms include neon, which is not usually intended to illuminate anything else, but to actually be an artwork in itself. This would probably fall under accent lighting, though in a dark nightclub it could be considered general lighting. In a movie theater, steps in the aisles are usually marked with a row of small lights for convenience and safety, when the film has started and the other lights are off. Traditionally made up of small low wattage, low-voltage lamps in a track or translucent tube, these are rapidly being replaced with LED based versions. Outdoor lighting High mast lighting along Highway 401 in Ontario, Canada. Street Lights are used to light roadways and walkways at night. Some manufacturers are designing LED and photovoltaic luminaires to provide an energy-efficient alternative to traditional street light fixtures.[14][15][16] Floodlights are used to illuminate outdoor playing fields or work zones during nighttime. Floodlights can be used to illuminate work zones[17] or outdoor playing fields during nighttime hours.[18][19] The most common type of floodlights are metal halide and high pressure sodium lights. Beacon lights are positioned at the intersection of two roads to aid in navigation. Sometimes security lighting can be used along roadways in urban areas, or behind homes or commercial facilities. These are extremely bright lights used to deter crime. Security lights may include floodlights and be activated with PIR switches that detect moving heat sources in darkness. Entry lights can be used outside to illuminate and signal the entrance to a property.[20] These lights are installed for safety, security, and for decoration. Underwater accent lighting is also used for koi ponds, fountains, swimming pools and the like. Neon signs are most often used to attract attention rather than to illuminate. Vehicle use Main article: Automotive lighting Vehicles typically include headlamps and tail lights. Headlamps are white or selective yellow lights placed in the front of the vehicle, designed to illuminate the upcoming road and to make the vehicle more visible. Many manufactures are turning to LED headlights as an energy-efficient alternative to traditional headlamps.[21] Tail and brake lights are red and emit light to the rear so as to reveal the vehicle's direction of travel to following drivers. White rear-facing reversing lamps indicate that the vehicle's transmission has been placed in the reverse gear, warning anyone behind the vehicle that it is moving backwards, or about to do so. Flashing turn signals on the front, side, and rear of the vehicle indicate an intended change of position or direction. In the late 1950s, some automakers began to use electroluminescent technology to backlight their cars' speedometers and other gauges or to draw attention to logos or other decorative elements. Lamps Main article: Lamp (electrical component) Commonly called 'light bulbs', lamps are the removable and replaceable part of a light fixture, which converts electrical energy into electromagnetic radiation. While lamps have traditionally been rated and marketed primarily in terms of their power consumption, expressed in watts, proliferation of lighting technology beyond the incandescent light bulb has eliminated the correspondence of wattage to the amount of light produced. For example, a 60 W incandescent light bulb produces about the same amount of light as a 13 W compact fluorescent lamp. Each of these technologies has a different efficacy in converting electrical energy to visible light. Visible light output is typically measured in lumens. This unit only quantifies the visible radiation, and excludes invisible infrared and ultraviolet light. A wax candle produces on the close order of 13 lumens, a 60 watt incandescent lamp makes around 700 lumens, and a 15-watt compact fluorescent lamp produces about 800 lumens, but actual output varies by specific design.[22] Rating and marketing emphasis is shifting away from wattage and towards lumen output, to give the purchaser a directly applicable basis upon which to select a lamp. Lamp types include:     Ballast: A ballast is an auxiliary piece of equipment designed to start and properly control the flow of power to discharge light sources such as fluorescent and high intensity discharge (HID) lamps. Some lamps require the ballast to have thermal protection.     fluorescent light: A tube coated with phosphor containing low pressure mercury vapor that produces white light.     Halogen: Incandescent lamps containing halogen gases such as iodine or bromine, increasing the efficacy of the lamp versus a plain incandescent lamp.     Neon: A low pressure gas contained within a glass tube; the color emitted depends on the gas.     Light emitting diodes: Light emitting diodes (LED) are solid state devices that emit light by dint of the movement of electrons in a semiconductor material.[23]     Compact fluorescent lamps: CFLs are designed to replace incandescent lamps in existing and new installations.[24][25] Design and architecture Architectural lighting design Main article: Architectural lighting design Lighting without windows: The Pantheon in the 18th century, painted by Giovanni Paolo Panini.[26] Lighting design as it applies to the built environment is known as 'architectural lighting design'. Lighting of structures considers aesthetic elements as well as practical considerations of quantity of light required, occupants of the structure, energy efficiency, and cost. Artificial lighting takes into account the amount of daylight received in a space by using daylight factor calculations. For simple installations, hand calculations based on tabular data are used to provide an acceptable lighting design. More critical or complex designs now routinely use computer software such as Radiance for mathematical modeling, which can allow an architect to quickly evaluate the benefit of a proposed design. In some instances, the materials used on walls and furniture play a key role in the lighting effect. For example, dark paint tends to absorb light, making the room appear smaller and more dim than it is, whereas light paint does the opposite. Other reflective surfaces also have an effect on lighting design.[11][27] On stage and set     This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Main article: Stage lighting Lighting and shadows Moving heads in a photo studio set. Illuminating subject from beneath to achieve a heightened dramatic effect. Lighting illuminates the performers and artists in a live theatre, dance, or musical performance, and is selected and arranged to create dramatic effects. Stage lighting uses general illumination technology in devices configured for easy adjustment of their output characteristics.[citation needed] The setup of stage lighting is tailored for each scene of each production. Dimmers, colored filters, reflectors, lenses, motorized or manually aimed lamps, and different kinds of flood and spot lights are among the tools used by a stage lighting designer to produce the desired effects. A set of lighting cues are prepared so that the lighting operator can control the lights in step with the performance; complex theatre lighting systems use computer control of lighting instruments. Motion picture and television production use many of the same tools and methods of stage lighting. Especially in the early days of these industries, very high light levels were required and heat produced by lighting equipment presented substantial challenges. Modern cameras require less light, and modern light sources emit less heat. Measurement Main article: Photometry (optics) Measurement of light or photometry is generally concerned with the amount of useful light falling on a surface and the amount of light emerging from a lamp or other source, along with the colors that can be rendered by this light. The human eye responds differently to light from different parts of the visible spectrum, therefore photometric measurements must take the luminosity function into account when measuring the amount of useful light. The basic SI unit of measurement is the candela (cd), which describes the luminous intensity, all other photometric units are derived from the candela. Luminance for instance is a measure of the density of luminous intensity in a given direction. It describes the amount of light that passes through or is emitted from a particular area, and falls within a given solid angle. The SI unit for luminance is candela per square metre (cd/m2). The CGS unit of luminance is the stilb, which is equal to one candela per square centimetre or 10 kcd/m2. The amount of useful light emitted from a source or the luminous flux is measured in lumen (lm). The SI unit of illuminance and luminous emittance, being the luminous power per area, is measured in Lux. It is used in photometry as a measure of the intensity, as perceived by the human eye, of light that hits or passes through a surface. It is analogous to the radiometric unit watts per square metre, but with the power at each wavelength weighted according to the luminosity function, a standardized model of human visual brightness perception. In English, "lux" is used in both singular and plural.[28] Several measurement methods have been developed to control glare resulting from indoor lighting design. The Unified Glare Rating (UGR), the Visual Comfort Probability, and the Daylight Glare Index are some of the most well-known methods of measurement. In addition to these new methods, four main factors influence the degree of discomfort glare; the luminance of the glare source, the solid angle of the glare source, the background luminance, and the position of the glare source in the field of view must all be taken into account.[10][29] Color properties To define light source color properties, the lighting industry predominantly relies on two metrics, correlated color temperature (CCT), commonly used as an indication of the apparent "warmth" or "coolness" of the light emitted by a source, and color rendering index (CRI), an indication of the light source's ability to make objects appear natural. However, these two metrics, developed in the last century, are facing increased challenges and criticisms as new types of light sources, particularly light emitting diodes (LEDs), become more prevalent in the market. For example, in order to meet the expectations for good color rendering in retail applications, research[30] suggests using the well-established CRI along with another metric called gamut area index (GAI). GAI represents the relative separation of object colors illuminated by a light source; the greater the GAI, the greater the apparent saturation or vividness of the object colors. As a result, light sources which balance both CRI and GAI are generally preferred over ones that have only high CRI or only high GAI.[31] Light exposure Typical measurements of light have used a Dosimeter. Dosimeters measure an individual's or an object's exposure to something in the environment, such as light dosimeters and ultraviolet dosimeters. In order to specifically measure the amount of light entering the eye, personal circadian light meter called the Daysimeter has been developed.[32] This is the first device created to accurately measure and characterize light (intensity, spectrum, timing, and duration) entering the eye that affects the human body's clock. The small, head-mounted device measures an individual's daily rest and activity patterns, as well as exposure to short-wavelength light that stimulates the circadian system. The device measures activity and light together at regular time intervals and electronically stores and logs its operating temperature. The Daysimeter can gather data for up to 30 days for analysis.[33] Energy consumption Several strategies are available to minimize energy requirements for lighting a building:     Specification of illumination requirements for each given use area.     Analysis of lighting quality to ensure that adverse components of lighting (for example, glare or incorrect color spectrum) are not biasing the design.     Integration of space planning and interior architecture (including choice of interior surfaces and room geometries) to lighting design.     Design of time of day use that does not expend unnecessary energy.     Selection of fixture and lamp types that reflect best available technology for energy conservation.     Training of building occupants to use lighting equipment in most efficient manner.     Maintenance of lighting systems to minimize energy wastage.     Use of natural light         Some big box stores were being built from 2006 on with numerous plastic bubble skylights, in many cases completely obviating the need for interior artificial lighting for many hours of the day.         In countries where indoor lighting of simple dwellings is a significant cost, "Moser lamps", plastic water-filled transparent drink bottles fitted through the roof, provide the equivalent of a 40- to 60-watt incandescent bulb each during daylight.[34]     Load shedding can help reduce the power requested by individuals to the main power supply. Load shedding can be done on an individual level, at a building level, or even at a regional level. Specification of illumination requirements is the basic concept of deciding how much illumination is required for a given task. Clearly, much less light is required to illuminate a hallway compared to that needed for a word processing work station. Generally speaking, the energy expended is proportional to the design illumination level. For example, a lighting level of 400 lux might be chosen for a work environment involving meeting rooms and conferences, whereas a level of 80 lux could be selected for building hallways.[35][36][37][38][39] If the hallway standard simply emulates the conference room needs, then much more energy will be consumed than is needed. Unfortunately, most of the lighting standards even today have been specified by industrial groups who manufacture and sell lighting, so that a historical commercial bias exists in designing most building lighting, especially for office and industrial settings. Lighting control systems Main article: Lighting control system Lighting control systems reduce energy usage and cost by helping to provide light only when and where it is needed. Lighting control systems typically incorporate the use of time schedules, occupancy control, and photocell control (i.e. daylight harvesting). Some systems also support demand response and will automatically dim or turn off lights to take advantage of utility incentives. Lighting control systems are sometimes incorporated into larger building automation systems. Many newer control systems are using wireless mesh open standards (such as ZigBee),[40] which provides benefits including easier installation (no need to run control wires) and interoperability with other standards-based building control systems (e.g. security).[41] In response to daylighting technology, daylight harvesting systems have been developed to further reduce energy consumption. These technologies are helpful, but they do have their downfalls. Many times, rapid and frequent switching of the lights on and off can occur, particularly during unstable weather conditions or when daylight levels are changing around the switching illuminance. Not only does this disturb occupants, it can also reduce lamp life. A variation of this technology is the 'differential switching or dead-band' photoelectric control which has multiple illuminances it switches from so as not to disturb occupants as much.[9][42] Occupancy sensors to allow operation for whenever someone is within the area being scanned can control lighting. When motion can no longer be detected, the lights shut off. Passive infrared sensors react to changes in heat, such as the pattern created by a moving person. The control must have an unobstructed view of the building area being scanned. Doors, partitions, stairways, etc. will block motion detection and reduce its effectiveness. The best applications for passive infrared occupancy sensors are open spaces with a clear view of the area being scanned. Ultrasonic sensors transmit sound above the range of human hearing and monitor the time it takes for the sound waves to return. A break in the pattern caused by any motion in the area triggers the control. Ultrasonic sensors can see around obstructions and are best for areas with cabinets and shelving, restrooms, and open areas requiring 360-degree coverage. Some occupancy sensors utilize both passive infrared and ultrasonic technology, but are usually more expensive. They can be used to control one lamp, one fixture or many fixtures.[43][44] Daylighting Main article: Daylighting Daylighting is the oldest method of interior lighting. Daylighting is simply designing a space to use as much natural light as possible. This decreases energy consumption and costs, and requires less heating and cooling from the building. Daylighting has also been proven to have positive effects on patients in hospitals as well as work and school performance. Due to a lack of information that indicate the likely energy savings, daylighting schemes are not yet popular among most buildings.[9][45] Solid-state lighting Main article: Solid-state lighting In recent years light emitting diodes (LEDs) are becoming increasingly efficient leading to an extraordinary increase in the use of solid state lighting. In many situations, controlling the light emission of LEDs may be done most effectively by using the principles of nonimaging optics.[46] Health effects Main articles: Full-spectrum light, Over-illumination, and Light effects on circadian rhythm It is valuable to provide the correct light intensity and color spectrum for each task or environment. Otherwise, energy not only could be wasted but over-illumination can lead to adverse health and psychological effects. Beyond the energy factors being considered, it is important not to over-design illumination, lest adverse health effects such as headache frequency, stress, and increased blood pressure be induced by the higher lighting levels. In addition, glare or excess light can decrease worker efficiency.[47] Analysis of lighting quality particularly emphasizes use of natural lighting, but also considers spectral content if artificial light is to be used. Not only will greater reliance on natural light reduce energy consumption, but will favorably impact human health and performance. New studies have shown that the performance of students is influenced by the time and duration of daylight in their regular schedules. Designing school facilities to incorporate the right types of light at the right time of day for the right duration may improve student performance and well-being. Similarly, designing lighting systems that maximize the right amount of light at the appropriate time of day for the elderly may help relieve symptoms of Alzheimer's Disease. The human circadian system is entrained to a 24-hour light-dark pattern that mimics the earth's natural light/dark pattern. When those patterns are disrupted, they disrupt the natural circadian cycle. Circadian disruption may lead to numerous health problems including breast cancer, seasonal affective disorder, delayed sleep phase syndrome, and other ailments.[48][49] A study conducted in 1972 and 1981, documented by Robert Ulrich, surveyed 23 surgical patients assigned to rooms looking out on a natural scene. The study concluded that patients assigned to rooms with windows allowing much natural light had shorter postoperative hospital stays, received fewer negative evaluative comments in nurses’ notes, and took fewer potent analgesics than 23 matched patients in similar rooms with windows facing a brick wall. This study suggests that due to the nature of the scenery and daylight exposure was indeed healthier for patients as opposed to those exposed to little light from the brick wall. In addition to increased work performance, proper usage of windows and daylighting crosses the boundaries between pure aesthetics and overall health.[45][50] Alison Jing Xu, assistant professor of management at the University of Toronto Scarborough and Aparna Labroo of Northwestern University conducted a series of studies analyzing the correlation between lighting and human emotion. The researchers asked participants to rate a number of things such as: the spiciness of chicken-wing sauce, the aggressiveness of a fictional character, how attractive someone was, their feelings about specific words, and the taste of two juices–all under different lighting conditions. In their study, they found that both positive and negative human emotions are felt more intensely in bright light. Professor Xu stated, "we found that on sunny days depression-prone people actually become more depressed." They also found that dim light makes people make more rational decisions and settle negotiations easier. In the dark, emotions are slightly suppressed. However, emotions are intensified in the bright light.[51][52][53] Environmental issues Compact fluorescent lamps Compact fluorescent lamps (CFLs) use less power than an incandescent lamp to supply the same amount of light, however they contain mercury which is a disposal hazard. Due to the ability to reduce electricity consumption, many organizations encouraged the adoption of CFLs. Some electric utilities and local governments subsidized CFLs or provided them free to customers as a means of reducing electricity demand. For a given light output, CFLs use between one fifth and one quarter the power of an equivalent incandescent lamp. Unlike incandescent lamps CFLs need a little time to warm up and reach full brightness. Not all CFLs are suitable for dimming. CFL’s have largely been replaced with LED technologies. LED lamps LED lamps have been advocated as the newest and best environmental lighting method.[54] According to the Energy Saving Trust, LED lamps use only 10% power compared to a standard incandescent bulb, where compact fluorescent lamps use 20% and energy saving halogen lamps 70%. The lifetime is also much longer — up to 50,000 hours. The downside when they were first popularized was the initial cost. By 2018, production costs dropped, performance increased, and energy consumption was reduced. While the initially cost of LEDs is still higher then incandescent lamps, the savings are so dramatic that there are very few instances that LEDs aren’t the most economical choice. Conflated data, aggregated in the early 2000s, about the increased use of blue-white LEDs seemed to indicate that their use, while saving energy, may compromise human health.[55] For instance, one study conducted by the American Medical Association[56] warned on the use of high blue content white LEDs in street lighting, due to their higher impact on human health and environment, compared to low blue content light sources (e.g. High Pressure Sodium, PC amber LEDs, and low CCT LEDs). While that data may have been suspect even prior to publication[citation needed], there’s no question that the solid state technology that are LEDs, has evolved substantially since then and we no longer use the lamps that were available for study at that time." (wikipedia.org) "A rope light is primarily used as a decorative lighting fixture, featuring small light bulbs linked together and encased in a PVC jacket to create a string of lights. Rope lights can be used in many applications both indoors and outdoors.[1] Used in place of neon signs, it is sometimes called soft neon.... Design The design of a rope light generally depends on the end use of the product.     Wiring: The basic design involves stringing together bulbs on a wire and then encasing the wire in a clear plastic jacket. The number of wires depends on the functionality required of the rope light. A basic rope light has two wires, which generally allows users to make bulbs dim or flash. However, a rope light with three wires allows greater functionality including chasing, dimming and flashing.[1]     Tube: The outer plastic tube is also an important feature that greatly affects the end use of any rope light. A rope light with relatively wider plastic tubing is more durable to external elements but less flexible. Thinner plastic tubing, on the other hand, is far more flexible but less robust. Generally, rope lights for heavy use outdoors feature thicker plastic casings while those used for more decorative purposes indoors have relatively thin plastic casings.     Voltage: Rope lights in the United States are generally sold in three different voltages: 12 volts, 24 volts and 120 volts. Generally, the 12 volts and 24 volts variants are better suited for situations where a battery is used to power the lights. Hence, this is the best option for cars, boats, etc. The 120-volt version is more appropriate for household or industrial lighting requirements.[2] LED and incandescent rope lights compared     Bulbs: LED rope lights have bulbs that are available in different colors and the bulbs themselves generate the colors. In contrast, incandescent rope lights typically have bulbs with a colored filter that is applied around the bulb. Therefore, when an LED rope light is switched off, it appears colorless, while incandescent bulbs still appear colored.[1][2]     Power consumption and performance: LED rope lights require far less energy than incandescent rope lights and generate comparatively less heat. LED bulbs use about 1 watt per foot in power while a traditional rope light uses close to 3 watts of light per foot. In general, LED rope lights are rated for 100,000 hours while a comparative incandescent rope light is rated for 25,000 hours.[1][2] Applications Many brands of rope lights are rated for either or both indoor and outdoor use. Due to the versatility of this lighting technology, it can be used in a variety of different environments without compromising the quality of the lighting.[3]     Indoor lighting: Rope lights are used for both decorative and practical lighting purposes. Common indoor uses include outlining the edge of a kitchen counter or bar, comprehensive ceiling lighting and under-lighting the baseboards in a movie theater. Rope lights also suit a room with no permanent layout like a garage, attic or children's rooms, where it can provide comprehensive lighting throughout the entire room regardless of how things are arranged. Users who want to add ambient lighting also use rope lights, in areas like the TV/gaming room, bedroom and bathroom.     Outdoor lighting: Outdoor uses for rope lights include staircase lighting, outdoor patio or deck lighting and outdoor artistic displays. Rope lights are durable and suitable for use around the garden, pool, driveway, shed, etc. During holiday seasons, lights can be used to create messages or designs with different colors and patterns." (wikipedia.org) "Target Corporation is an American retail corporation. The eighth-largest retailer in the United States, it is a component of the S&P 500 Index.[4] Its largest competitors, Walmart and Amazon are the first and second largest retailers, respectively.[5] Target established itself as the discount division of the Dayton's Company of Minneapolis, Minnesota, in 1962; it began expanding the store nationwide in the 1980s (as part of the Dayton-Hudson Corporation), and introduced new store formats under the Target brand in the 1990s. The company has found success as a cheap-chic player in the industry.[6] The parent company was renamed the Target Corporation in 2000, and divested itself of its last department-store chains in 2004. It suffered from a massive and highly publicized security breach of customer credit card data and the failure of its short-lived Target Canada subsidiary in the early 2010s, but experienced revitalized success with its expansion in urban markets within the United States. As of 2019, Target operated 1,844 stores throughout the United States.[3] The company is ranked number 37 on 2020 Fortune 500 list of the largest United States corporations by total revenue.[7] Their retail formats include the discount store Target, the hypermarket SuperTarget, and "small-format" stores previously named CityTarget and TargetExpress before being consolidated under the Target branding.... History Main article: History of Target Corporation Finances Year     Revenue in mil. USD$     Net Income in mil. USD$     Total Assets in mil. USD$     Employees     Stores 2005     46,839     3,918     32,293     292,000     1,308 2006     52,620     2,408     34,995     338,000     1,397 2007     59,490     2,787     37,349     352,000     1,488 2008     63,637     2,849     44,560     366,000     1,591 2009     64,948     2,214     44,106     351,000     1,682 2010     65,357     2,488     44,533     351,000     1,740 2011     67,390     2,920     43,705     355,000     1,750 2012     69,865     2,929     46,630     365,000     1,763 2013     73,301     2,999     48,163     361,000     1,778 2014     71,279     1,971     44,553     366,000     1,917 2015     72,618     1,636     41,172     347,000     1,790 2016     73,785     3,363     40,262     341,000     1,792 2017     69,495     2,737     37,431     323,000     1,802 2018     71,879     2,934     38,999     345,000     1,822 2019     75,356     2,937     41,290     360,000     1,851 [8] Store formats Target The exterior of a typical Target store in Rock Hill, South Carolina, in May 2012 (Store #1371) CVS Pharmacy inside of a Target store (store #1910 in Savannah, Georgia) The first Target discount store opened in Roseville, Minnesota, on May 1, 1962.[9] Present-day properties are roughly 135,000 square feet (12,500 m2) and sell general merchandise, including hardlines and softlines.[10] While many Target stores follow a standard big-box architectural style,[11] the company has focused on "customizing each new store to ensure a locally relevant experience [...] that best fit the surrounding neighborhood’s needs" since August 2006.[12] Initially, only SuperTarget locations operated Starbucks Coffee counters, although they were integrated into general-merchandise stores through their expanded partnership beginning in 2003.[13] Target introduced the "PFresh" store prototype in 2006, which expanded its grocery selection in general-merchandise locations by upwards of 200%. Newly constructed stores that follow the PFresh format are roughly 1,500 square feet (140 m2) larger than properties without groceries, although retain the Target branding because their offerings are considerably more limited than SuperTarget. PFresh sells perishable and frozen foods, baked goods, meat, and dairy. The company remodeled 109 stores accordingly in 2006, and renovated another 350 stores the following year.[14] The company's decision to close their garden centers opened floor space for PFresh expansion and larger seasonal departments beginning in 2010.[15] On June 15, 2015, CVS Health announced an agreement with Target to acquire all of Target's pharmacies and clinic businesses for around $1.9 billion. The Target pharmacies were rebranded as CVS Health pharmacies, which totaled 1,672 pharmacies in February 2016. The Target clinics were also rebranded as MinuteClinic. The acquisition of the Target pharmacies enabled CVS to expand its market into Seattle, Denver, Portland, and Salt Lake City.[16][17] SuperTarget The exterior of a SuperTarget in Omaha, Nebraska, in October 2005. This store was remodeled in 2017. (Store #1777) The first Target Greatland location opened in Apple Valley, Minnesota, in September 1990. They were about 50% larger than traditional Target stores, and pioneered company standards, including an increased number of checkout lanes and price scanners, larger aisles, expanded pharmacy and photography departments, and a food court. Target Greatland locations have since been converted to stores following the PFresh format beginning in 2009.[18] The first SuperTarget hypermarket opened in Omaha, Nebraska in 1995, and expanded upon the Target Greatland concept with the inclusion of a full grocery department.[9] The company expanded their grocery assortment in 2003 and adopted the modified tagline "Eat Well. Pay Less." (in reference to their tagline "Expect More. Pay Less.") in 2004.[9][19] In the early 2000s, 43 locations (of nearly 100) featured E-Trade trading stations, although they were all closed by June 2003 after E-Trade determined that "we were not able to make it into a profitable distribution channel."[20] When comparing itself with rival Walmart Supercenter hypermarkets, then-chief executive Gregg Steinhafel opined that Walmart operates like "a grocer that happens to also sell general merchandise," where in contrast, its less aggressive expansion of SuperTarget stores is indicative of their position that the grocery industry as a "high-impact, low-cost" side project.[19] The company operated 239 SuperTarget locations as of September 2015;[21] they each encompass an estimate of 174,000 square feet (16,200 m2).[22] In August 2015, Target made the announcement of "Big or small, our stores have one thing in common: they're all Target."[23] Since then, newer stores have opened under the Target name. Existing SuperTarget stores retained the name on the buildings although some have become Target through remodels. Small-format Target The exterior of the CityTarget in Boston, Massachusetts, in October 2015, now rebranded as Target (store #2822) While typical Target locations are about 135,000 square feet (12,500 m2), the majority of "small-format" CityTarget stores are roughly 80,000 square feet (7,400 m2). The first stores were opened in July 2012, in Chicago, Los Angeles, and Seattle;[10] the 160,000 square feet (15,000 m2) location in Boston is the largest CityTarget and opened in July 2015.[24] TargetExpress stores hover around 14,000 to 21,000 square feet (1,300 to 2,000 m2); the first opened in Dinkytown near the University of Minnesota in July 2014.[25] Products in these flexible-format properties are typically sold in smaller packages geared towards customers using public transportation. Locations built in college communities often carry an extended home department of apartment and dormitory furnishings.[26] In August 2015, Target announced that it would rename its nine CityTarget and five TargetExpress stores as Target beginning that October, deciding that "Big or small, our stores have one thing in common: they're all Target."[24] The first small-format stores under the unified naming scheme opened later that month in Chicago, Rosslyn, San Diego, and San Francisco.[27] The company opened a 45,000 sq ft store in the Tribeca neighborhood of New York in October 2016. In that same month, three other similar-sized stores opened in Philadelphia, Cupertino, California, and the area around Pennsylvania State University.[6] Target opened a 22,000 sq ft store in Austin's Dobie Twenty21, adjacent to the UT Austin campus.[28] Nearly all of its planned openings through 2019 are small formats, which are less than 50,000 sq ft.[6] The goal of these smaller-format stores is to win over the business of millennial customers. The nearly 30 new locations were to be situated in college towns or densely populated areas.[6] Brands and subsidiaries As of 2018, Target has four subsidiaries: Target Brands, Inc., Target Capital Corporation, Target Enterprise, Inc., and Target General Merchandise, Inc.[29] Cash registers inside the now-closed Target (a former Zellers, later Lowe's that opened in 2016 and closed in 2019 and is now Canada Computers) in Toronto, Ontario, Canada Financial and Retail Services Financial and Retail Services (FRS), formerly Target Financial Services, issues Target's credit cards, known as the Target REDcard (formerly the Target Guest Card), issued through Target National Bank (formerly Retailers National Bank) for consumers and through Target Bank for businesses. FRS also oversees GiftCard balances. Target launched its PIN-x debit card, the Target Check Card, which was later rebranded the Target Debit Card. The Target Debit Card withdraws funds from the customer's existing checking account, and allows for up to $40 "cash back". The debit card allows guests to save 5% off each purchase. In late 2017, Target replaced its REDcard slogan, "Save 5% Today, Tomorrow, & Everyday with Target REDcard", when it rolled out new benefits for REDcard holders by offering exclusive products on Target.com and preorders with "Everyday Savings. Exclusive Extras."[30] Target Sourcing Services This global sourcing organization locates merchandise from around the world for Target and helps import the merchandise to the United States. Such merchandise includes garments, furniture, bedding, and towels. Target Sourcing Services (TSS) has 27 full-service offices, 48 quality-control offices, and seven concessionaires located throughout the world. TSS employs 1,200 people. Its engineers are responsible for evaluating the factories that do business with Target Corporation for quality, labor rights, and transshipment issues.[31] TSS was acquired by Target Corporation in 1998, was founded in 1916 as the Associated Merchandising Corporation, and was previously owned by the clients it served.[citation needed] TSS ceased operations in its department-store group, the division of the former Associated Merchandising Corporation that acted as a buying office for Saks, Inc., Bloomingdale's, Stage Stores Inc., T.J.Maxx, and Marshalls.[32] Private-label brands Electronics department inside a Target in Dublin, California (store #2771) Grocery department inside a Target in Dublin, California (store #2771) Target Brands is the company's brand-management division that oversees the company's private-label products. In addition, Bullseye Dog is a mascot, and the Bullseye Design and 'Target' are registered trademarks of Target Brands.     Good & Gather, a food and beverage brand, is replacing Archer Farms and Simply Balanced.[33]     Archer Farms, up-market grocery products     Market Pantry, value grocery products     Simply Balanced, organic grocery products     Sutton & Dodge, a premium meat line     Boots & Barkley, a pet food and supply line     Embark, an outdoor gear line of camping and travel equipment     Room Essentials, a low-end home-goods line     Threshold, a premium furniture line     Fieldcrest, bedding and bath line in partnership with brand owner Iconix Brand Group     up & up is a Target-issued a relaunch of the Target brand as up&up to include an expanded product selection and a new design. The up & up brand offers essential commodities, including household, healthcare, beauty, baby, and personal-care products. The brand claims to offer products of equal quality to national brands at a fraction of the cost, averaging a savings of 30%.[34] As of September 2009, up & up offers over 800 products across 40 categories.[35] Other private labels include brands launched in July 2016, during back-to-school sales. Goodfellow & Co. clothes at a Target store in Gainesville, Florida (Store #687).     Pillowfort, a children's line of bedding     Cat and Jack, a children's line of apparel and accessories     Cloud Island, a baby's line of bedding and clothing     Project 62, a household-goods line placed alongside Room Essentials     Goodfellow & Co., a clothing and personal-care line for men, with the name being an homage to their beginnings as Goodfellow Dry Goods     A New Day, a clothing line for women     JoyLab, a fitness-clothing line for women     Hearth and Hand, a home and lifestyle brand, in collaboration with Magnolia After the launch, the clothing and bedding brands made a big hit and were successful. Target executives claim that the new brands increased sales by $1 billion and increased 15% in revenue, only during their first year.[36] Eight Target private-label brands that launched in 2018:[37]     Universal Thread, a denim lifestyle brand     Opalhouse, eclectic home decor     Heyday, a line of electronic accessories     Original Use, male clothing brand targeting gen-Z and millennials     Wild Fable, women's clothing brand targeting gen-Z     Made By Design, a homelines brand, made up of home basics such as towels, cooking utensils, glassware, plates, pots, kitchen gadgets, and more     Prologue, a line of sophisticated female clothing     Smartly, essential a commodity brand, including household, healthcare, beauty, and personal-care products In addition, Target recently released three new intimates, loungewear, and sleepwear brands for women on February 25, 2019:[38]     Auden, an intimates and lingerie exclusive brand     Stars Above, an in-house brand for sleepwear     Colsie, an intimates and loungewear brand On January 9, 2020, Target announced its new activewear brand, All In Motion, an athleisure line with products for all ages and genders.[39] Former brands include:     Cherokee, children's and women's clothing: On September 10, 2015, Target stores announced they would cease carrying the brand when its partnership with Cherokee Inc. expired on January 31, 2017. It was replaced by Cat & Jack.     Circo, toddler's and kids clothing: The brand was replaced by Cat & Jack upon debut.     Merona, a clothing brand purchased by Target in 1991     Mossimo Supply Co., a clothing line, in partnership with the brand owner Iconix Brand Group     Xhilaration and Gilligan & O'Malley product lines of intimates and sleepwear were discontinued after the release of the brands Auden, Stars Above, and Colsie. Website Target.com Screenshot Type of site     E-commerce URL    www.target.com Commercial    Yes Registration    Optional but required for some features Launched    2010; 11 years ago August 2011; 9 years ago (rebrand) Current status    Online Target.com owns and oversees the company's e-commerce initiatives, such as the Target.com domain. Founded in early 2000 as target.direct, it was formed by separating the company's existing e-commerce operations from its retailing division and combining it with its Rivertown Trading direct-marketing unit into a stand-alone subsidiary.[40] In 2002, target.direct and Amazon subsidiary Amazon Enterprise Solutions created a partnership in which Amazon would provide order fulfillment and guest services for Target.com in exchange for fixed and variable fees. After the company sold Marshall Field's and Mervyn's in 2004, target.direct became Target.com. The domain target.com attracted at least 288 million visitors annually by 2008, according to a Compete.com survey.[41] In August 2009, Target announced that they would build and manage a new Target.com platform, independent of Amazon. This new platform was to launch in 2011, in advance of the holiday season. Prior to the announcement, Target and Amazon had extended their partnership until 2011.[42] In January 2010, Target announced their vendor partners for the re-platforming project. These partners include Sapient, IBM, Oracle, Endeca, Autonomy, Sterling Commerce, and Huge, among others.[43] The re-platformed Target.com officially launched on August 23, 2011, effectively ending the partnership with Amazon.[44] Former subsidiaries     Target Portrait Studio was a chain of portrait studios that were located in select Target stores. The chain, which was operated by Lifetouch, opened in 1996 and ceased operations on January 28, 2017.[45]     Target Canada was the chain of Target stores in Canada. It was formed in 2013 when Target acquired Zellers and converted them into Target stores. Target Canada was in operation for two years until the closure of all stores in 2015.[46] Supply chain Truck arriving at a Target distribution center As of May 2016, Target Corporation operates 41 distribution centers across the United States.[47] With the exception of vendor-supplied items, such as greeting cards and soda, these distribution centers ship items directly to Target stores. Also, unlike Walmart, Target's grocery selection does not come from their own distribution centers, but from the companies with whom Target has partnered.[48] The retail chain's first distribution center opened in Fridley, Minnesota, in 1969. It included a computerized distribution system and was known as the Northern Distribution Center. During this time, the chain consisted of 17 stores after having expanded into Oklahoma and Texas.[49] On August 9, 2004, Target announced to their suppliers that they were going to perform a trial on the effects of radio-frequency identification on the efficiency of supply chain management in the Dallas–Fort Worth metroplex. This trial involved one Target distribution center and 10 nearby Target stores. Here, RFID tags were placed on the bar codes of pallets and cartons to track the goods from the suppliers to the distribution center, and from the distribution center to the stores.[50] As of 2009, RFID had been phased out of the Dallas–Fort Worth stores. In 2016, Target planned to roll out the RFID technology at all 1,795 of its store locations across the United States.[51] Target opened new distribution centers in 2006 (Rialto, California, DeKalb, Illinois) to support the growth of its stores. On January 27, 2009, Target announced the closing of its distribution center in Maumelle, Arkansas, the second-oldest in the company. The reason cited was the need to ensure that Target remains competitive in the long term.[52] In June 2009, Target opened a new distribution center to supply more than 60 stores in three states.[53] SuperTarget and PFresh stores require fresh produce and refrigerated and frozen items. Food-distribution centers owned by SuperValu have been used by Target for many years. In October 2003, SuperValu's facility in Phoenix, Arizona, was converted to serve Target exclusively.[54] The same change was implemented at the SuperValu center in Fort Worth, Texas.[55] A new distribution center was constructed by Target in Lake City, Florida, to serve the Southeast, but it was operated by SuperValu until 2011, when it transitioned to Target.[54] A fourth center in Cedar Falls, Iowa, opened in 2009 and is unique in that it is located adjacent to a standard Target Distribution Center, each using the same dispatch office.[55] Other warehouses owned by SuperValu are still used in other regions, but Target plans to replace those over the next few years.[54] In Colorado, stores are serviced through FreshPack Produce Inc. of Denver.[48] In the mid-Atlantic region/Philadelphia market, C&S Wholesale Grocers services the fresh produce, meat, dairy, bakery, and frozen-food needs to PFresh stores. Target partnered with Swisslog Holding to use a semiautomated monorail picking system called the CaddyPick system for use in the food-distribution centers. The company operates four facilities to receive shipments from overseas manufacturers and suppliers. They are located near ports at Rialto, California; Savannah, Georgia; Lacey, Washington; and Suffolk, Virginia. Merchandise received is sent directly to Regional Distribution Centers. Internet sales orders from the Target Direct division, which operates from the Target.com website, are processed by the facility in Woodbury, Minnesota, with some support from Savannah, Georgia, and other vendors. New centers opened in Ontario, California, and Tucson, Arizona, in 2009.[55] Distribution centers     Reach forklifts at a Target distribution center.     Target distribution center with a Swisslog CaddyPick system.     T-3892 Target food distribution center in Lake City, Florida.     T-0556 Target regional distribution center in Tifton, Georgia. Distribution center     Type     Location T-580     Regional     Madison, Alabama T-588     Regional     Phoenix, Arizona T-9478     E-Commerce Fulfillment     Tucson, Arizona T-0553     Regional     Fontana, California T-9479     E-Commerce Fulfillment     Ontario, California T-3806     Regional     Rialto, California T-3807     Import     Rialto, California T-3899     Food     Rialto, California T-0593     Regional     Shafter, California T-0555     Regional     Woodland, California T-0554     Regional     Pueblo, Colorado T-3892     Food     Lake City, Florida T-3808     Regional     Midway, Georgia T-3810     Import     Savannah, Georgia T-0556     Regional     Tifton, Georgia T-3809     Regional     DeKalb, Illinois -     Central returns     Indianapolis, Indiana T-0559     Regional     Indianapolis, Indiana T-0590     Regional     Cedar Falls, Iowa T-3895     Food     Cedar Falls, Iowa T-3803     Regional     Topeka, Kansas T-0587     Regional     Galesburg, Michigan T-0551     Regional     Fridley, Minnesota T-9407     E-Commerce Fulfillment     Woodbury, Minnesota T-3844     E-Commerce Fulfillment     Perth Amboy, New Jersey T-3802     Regional     Amsterdam, New York T-0579     Regional     Wilton, New York T-3811     Regional     Newton, North Carolina T-3880     Food     West Jefferson, Ohio T-3804     Regional     West Jefferson, Ohio T-0558     Regional     Albany, Oregon T-0589     Regional     Chambersburg, Pennsylvania -     E-Commerce Fulfillment     York, Pennsylvania T-0594     Regional     Lugoff, South Carolina T-3897     Food     Denton, Texas T-3801     Regional     Midlothian, Texas T-3801     Regional     Tyler, Texas T-0560     Regional     Stuarts Draft, Virginia T-3800     Import     Suffolk, Virginia T-0600     Import     Lacey, Washington T-0557     Regional     Oconomowoc, Wisconsin Corporate affairs Headquarters Target Plaza South, a portion of the Target Corporation headquarters complex in downtown Minneapolis, United States: The building originally featured the Target Light System, created by using 3M light pipes,[56] but was replaced by more energy-efficient LEDs in 2011.[57] Target Corporation has its headquarters on Nicollet Mall in Minneapolis,[58] near the site of the original Goodfellows store.[citation needed] The complex includes Target Plaza North and Target Plaza South. Ryan Companies developed the complex, and Ellerbe Becket served as the architect. Target had the roughly $260 million complex developed to provide one location of office space for 6,000 employees. The 14-story Target Plaza North has 600,000 square feet (56,000 m2) of office and retail space, while the 32-story Target Plaza South has 1,250,000 square feet (116,000 m2) of space.[59] Brian Cornell is the CEO of Target Corporation. In January 2016, Cornell began making home visits in an effort to understand better the needs and desires of his customers.[60] In January 2016, Target fired Tina Tyler from her job as chief stores officer. She was replaced with long-time employee Janna Potts.[61] On August 26, 2020, the headquarters were damaged and looted following a false report that a man was killed by Minneapolis Police on the Nicollet Mall area.[62][63][64] Diversity The company states that "individuality may include a wide spectrum of attributes such as personal style, age, race, gender, ethnicity, sexual orientation, language, physical ability, religion, family, citizenship status, socio-economic circumstances, education, and life experiences."[65] The Target employee diversity initiative is called "All Together Target".[66] It specifically seeks to work with vendors and contractors that are owned by minorities or women.[67] In February 2012, the company extended the team member discount to same-sex partners of employees. It had received a 100 on the Human Rights Campaign Corporate Equality Index Score, prior to donating funds to Minnesota Forward.[68] The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People has repeatedly given Target failing grades on its annual Economic Reciprocity Initiative report card, a measure of the company's "commitment to the African-American citizenry". In 2003 and 2005, the NAACP has rated Target an "F" on this report; in 2004, Target was rated a "D-".[69][70][71] In 2006, when Target was asked why it didn't participate in the survey again,[72] a representative explained, "Target views diversity as being inclusive of all people from all different backgrounds, not just one group."[73] In February 2006, the National Federation of the Blind (NFB) filed a class action discrimination lawsuit in Northern California's Alameda County Superior Court, claiming that Target's commercial website contains "thousands of access barriers that make it difficult, if not impossible, for blind customers to use."[74] Target Corporation settled the lawsuit in October 2008, paying $6 million and agreeing to work with the NFB over the next three years improving the usability of the Target.com site.[75] August 24, 2009, the United States Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) filed a discrimination lawsuit against Target Corporation for unlawfully denying reasonable accommodation to an employee with multiple disability-based impairments and substantially reducing his work hours due to the medical conditions.[76] According to the claims in the EEOC press release, Target's actions violated Title I of the Americans With Disabilities Act (ADA) and Title I of the Civil Rights Act of 1991.[77] Philanthropy Target is consistently ranked as one of the most philanthropic companies in the US. It ranked No. 22 in Fortune magazine's "World's Most Admired Companies" for 2010, largely in part to the donation efforts of the company as a whole.[78] According to a November 2005 Forbes article, it ranked as the highest cash-giving company in America in percentage of income given (2.1%).[79] Target donates around 5 percent of its pre-tax operating profit; it gives over $3 million a week (up from $2 million in years prior) to the communities in which it operates. It also gives a percentage of charges from its Target Visa to schools designated by the cardholders. To date, Target has given over $150 million to schools across the United States through this program. Further evidence of Target's philanthropy can be found in the Target House complex in Memphis, Tennessee, a long-term housing solution for families of patients at the city's St. Jude Children's Research Hospital. The corporation led the way with more than $27 million in donations, which made available 96 fully furnished apartments for families needing to stay at St. Jude over 90 days. Target has a no-solicitation rule at its properties, as it seeks to provide a "distraction-free shopping experience for its guests." Exemptions to this policy were previously made for the Salvation Army red kettles and bell-ringers outside Target stores during the holidays through Christmas. In 2004, however, Target asked the organization to explore alternate methods to partner with Target. Target donates to local Salvation Army chapters through its grant program and annually to the United Way of America (the Salvation Army is a member of the United Way coalition). In 2005, Target and the Salvation Army[80] created a joint effort called "The Target/Salvation Army Wish List", where online shoppers could donate goods to the organization for hurricane victims by buying them directly from Target.com between November 25, 2005, and January 25, 2006. In 2006, they created another joint effort called "The Target/Salvation Army Angel Giving Tree",[81] which is an online version of the Salvation Army's Angel Tree program;[82] in addition to donating proceeds made from the sales of limited edition Harvey Lewis angel ornaments within Target's stores. During the Thanksgiving holiday of 2006, Target and the Salvation Army partnered with magician David Blaine to send several families on a shopping spree the morning of Black Friday. The challenge held that if Blaine could successfully work his way out of a spinning gyroscope by the morning of Black Friday, then several families would receive $500 shopping certificates. The challenge was completed successfully by Blaine.[83] During disasters, Target has been a major benefactor for relief efforts. Target provided monetary and product donations during the September 11 attacks; it also donated money for relief efforts for the 2004 tsunami in South Asia and donated $1.5 million (US) to the American Red Cross in the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina in 2005. It also allowed its store properties in the affected area to be used as command centers for relief organizations and donated supplies such as water and bug spray. Target will often donate its unused, returned or seasonal merchandise (particularly clothing) to Goodwill Industries. Environmental record In 2007, Target Corporation agreed to reduce its sales on all materials containing polyvinyl chloride (PVC).[84] Testers found toxic lead and phthalates and large amounts of PVC in toys, lunch boxes, baby bibs, jewelry, garden hoses, mini blinds, Christmas trees, and electronics.[84] Several studies have shown that chemicals in vinyl chloride can cause serious health problems for children and adults.[84] The University of Illinois Medical Center in Chicago states that people who use products containing PVC can become exposed with harmful toxic phthalates and lead, which eventually can become a big contributor with dioxins.[84] Lois Gibbs, executive director of the Center for Health, Environment, and Justice, stated, "Target is doing the right thing by moving away from PVC and switching to safer alternatives."[84] Other companies reducing the PVC on their shelves include Walmart, Microsoft, Johnson & Johnson, Nike, and Apple.[84] Target stores have been taking environmental measures by reusing materials within their stores and recycling products such as broken hangers, cardboard, and rechargeable batteries.[85] Target is beginning to reduce energy use with energy-efficient storefronts and reducing waste with recycling programs.[86] All Target stores in the United States use plastic carts with metal frames. In mid-2006, Target took it a step further when it began introducing a newer cart design made entirely of plastic. It also uses the same design in its hand-use baskets.[87] Target released a 13-page report in 2007 that outlined their current and future plans for becoming more earth-friendly according to LEED. Such efforts include installing sand filtration systems for the stores' wastewater. Recycling programs will be aimed at garment hangers, corrugated cardboard, electronics, shopping carts, shrink wrap, construction wastes, carpeting, and ceiling tiles and roofing materials. All stores in Oklahoma will be partnered with Oklahoma Gas & Electric to exclusively use wind power for all Target stores in order to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Stores nationwide use only LED and fluorescent lights and low-flow restrooms that reduce wastewater by 30%. Some Target stores are installing roof gardens or green roofs, which absorb stormwater and cut down on surface runoff, mitigate temperature fluctuations and provide habitats for birds. There are currently four green-roof Target stores in Chicago. Target carries over 700 organic and alternative products from brands such as Archer Farms, Burt's Bees, and Method Products. They also sell clothes made from organic cotton, non-toxic cleaners, low-energy lighting and electronics, non-toxic and non-animal tested cosmetics, and furniture made from recycled materials. As of June 2007, Target has been offering reusable shopping bags as an alternative to disposable plastic bags. Target gift cards are made from corn-based resins. All of the stores' packaging is done with a modified paperboard/clamshell option and has goals for phasing out plastic wrap completely.[88] In collaboration with MBH Architects, Target's first "green" building was a 100,000+ square foot Target store built-in 1995 in Fullerton, California. It was a part of the EPA Energy Star Showcase for its use of skylights that cut the original energy consumption by 24% with a 5-year payback.[89] Target and MBH Architects were awarded the "Green Lights Partner/Ally of the Year Award".[90] Target is the only national retailer employing a Garment Hanger reuse program, which keeps millions of pounds of metal and plastic out of landfills. In 2007, this program prevented 434 million hangers from entering landfills. On June 15, 2009, the California Attorney General and 20 California District Attorneys filed a lawsuit in Alameda County alleging that Target stores across the state have been illegally dumping hazardous wastes in landfills.[91] On October 1, 2009, Target Corporation agreed to pay a $600,000 civil penalty for importing and selling a variety of toys with lead paint levels that were higher than is legally allowed. The Consumer Products Safety Commission alleged that "Target knowingly imported and sold the illegal Chinese-made toys between May 2006 and August 2007."[92] A similar problem occurred a few months later in February 2010, when Target pulled Valentine's Day "message bears" from its shelves at the request of the California attorney general's office. The bears, which were manufactured in China, contained more lead than is permissible under federal law for children under 12.[93] A class action suit was filed in 2014 in the U.S. District Court for the Northern District of Ohio, on behalf of consumers in Ohio that purchased Target-brand wet wipes. The lawsuit filed against Target Corporation alleges the retailer misled consumers by marking the packaging on its up & up® brand wipes as flushable and safe for sewer and septic systems. The lawsuit also alleges that so-called flushable wipes are a public health hazard because they are alleged to clog pumps at municipal waste-treatment facilities.[94] On Dec. 5, 2018, Alameda County District Attorney O’Malley announced fining Target $7.4 million for putting illegal e-waste, medical supplies and private information into the garbage.[95] Customer privacy In December 2013, a data breach of Target's systems affected up to 110 million customers.[96][97] Compromised customer information included names, phone numbers, email and mailing addresses.[98] In March 2015, Target reached a class-action settlement with affected consumers for $10 million (plus class-action attorney fees).[99] In May 2016, Target settled with affected banks and credit unions for $39 million (plus class-action attorney fees), of which $19 million would be disbursed by a MasterCard program.[100] Labor relations and team member offerings In 2015, Target followed Walmart in raising its minimum wage to $9 per hour.[101] Two years later, Target announced that the minimum hourly wage would be increased to $11 by October 2017 and pledged to raise it to $15 (referred to as "living wage" by labor advocates) by 2020.[102][103] By April 2019, the company announced that it was on track to meet this goal, increasing its minimum wage to $13 per hour.[104] In June 2020, Target announced ahead of schedule that the minimum hourly wage would rise to $15 permanently, after previously announcing it to be temporary through July 4, 2020. As a thank you to store and distribution center team members who worked during the pandemic in the United States, Target also announced a one-time $200 bonus to be paid towards the end of July 2020. During the pandemic, Target began providing additional team member resources to help team members meet essential needs, obtain virtual healthcare, and take a paid leave of absence (based on certain medical or physical criteria that may cause exposure to c).[105][106] Corporate identity Logo     Target logo, 1962–1968     Target logo, 1968–present     Target logo, used as primary logo from 1968–2004 and secondary logo from 2004–2018     Target logo, 2004–2018     Target logo, 2018–present     Target Greatland logo, 1990–2006     Original SuperTarget logo, 1995–2006     Second SuperTarget logo, 2006–2018     CityTarget logo, 2012–2015     TargetExpress logo, 2014–2015     Super Target logo, 2004–2018 Differentiation from competitors Since its founding, it has intended to differentiate its stores from its competitors by offering what it believes is more upscale, trend-forward merchandise at lower costs, rather than the traditional concept of focusing on low-priced goods. Douglas J. Dayton, one of the Dayton brothers, explained John Geisse's concept:     "We will offer high-quality merchandise at low margins because we are cutting expenses. We would much rather do this than trumpet dramatic price cuts on cheap merchandise."[49] As a result, Target stores tend to attract younger customers than Walmart, among other competitors. The median Target shopper is 40, the youngest of all major discount retailers that Target competes directly against. The median household income of Target's customer base is roughly $64,000. Roughly 76% of Target customers are female, and more than 43% have children at home. About 80% have attended college and 57% have completed college.[107][108] In October 2008, Target announced plans to fight the perception that their products are more expensive than those of other discount retailers. It added perishables to their inventory, cut back on discretionary items, and spent three-quarters of their marketing budget on advertising that emphasizes value and includes actual prices of items featured in ads. Target also planned to slow its expansion from about 100 stores a year down to 70 stores a year.[109][110][111] Target stores are designed to be more attractive than large big-box stores by having wider aisles, drop ceilings, a more attractive presentation of merchandise, and generally cleaner fixtures. Special attention is given to the design of the store environment: graphics reinforce its advertising imagery, while shelves are dressed with contemporary signage, backdrops, and liners, often printed on inexpensive material such as paper, corrugated and foam boards. Some stores, particularly those in the vicinity of major airports, have a bullseye painted on the roof that can be seen from above: the stores in East Point, Georgia near Hartsfield-Jackson Atlanta International Airport; Rosemont, Illinois, near O'Hare International Airport; Potomac Yard, Virginia, near Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport; College Point, New York (Queens), east of LaGuardia Airport; and Richfield, Minnesota, adjacent to Minneapolis–St. Paul International Airport are among such locations.[112] Target stores do not sell firearms. In the early 1990s, they ceased sales of toy guns that looked realistic and limited its toy gun selection to ones that were brightly colored and oddly shaped. In 2014, Target also "respectfully" asked their guests to leave any firearms at home when visiting the store.[113] They do not sell tobacco products and have not sold cigarettes since 1996.[114][115] Most Target stores don't play music, but may be changing that from 2017 with a rebranding process, adding music to the rebranded stores.[citation needed] Targét Some people jokingly give Target the pseudo-French pronunciation /tɑːrˈʒeɪ/ tar-ZHAY, as though it were an upscale boutique.[116][117] Though this practice is often attributed to Oprah Winfrey's usage on her television show, it is first attested in 1962, the year the first Target store opened.[117] Target once sold a line of shoes called "Miss Targé;"[118] this was reinforced by a 1980s television advertisement starring Didi Conn.[citation needed] This pronunciation has also led some people to incorrectly believe that the company is French-owned.[48] In recognition of the nickname's popularity and cachet, Target Corporation licensed its new name and logo to Brand Central LLC in 2006, complete with an accent over the letter "E" for a new line of clothing aimed at more upscale fashion customers. The line, "Targét Couture," was originally sold in Los Angeles-based store Intuition, which deals with high-end brands.[119][120] Nomenclature Target uses a practice that was derived in 1989 from The Walt Disney Company[48] by calling its customers "Guests," its employees "Team Members," and its supervisors "Team Leaders." Also, managers are known as "Executive Team Leaders (ETLs)," "Senior Team Leaders (SRTLs)," or "Guest Service Team Leaders (GSTLs)," and the Store Manager is known as the "Store Team Leader (STL)," Further up the "chain of command" are "District Team Leaders (DTL)," "Group Team Leaders (GTL, sometimes also Group Vice President)," "Regional Team Leaders (RTL, sometimes also Regional Vice President)," and corporate-level executives. This practice began to be revised in 2018 and became more widespread in 2019 as the Group Team Leader became the Group Operations Director. District Team Leader became the District Senior Director. The Store Team Leader became Store Director. Executive Team Leaders were shortened to Executive Team Lead. Other Team Leaders retained their title though some of the department names changed such as Guest Service Team Leader was renamed Service & Engagement Team Leader. Front of store team members was renamed Guest Advocates. Specialty areas in Style, Beauty and Tech are considered Consultants. Other areas such as General Merchandise, Presentation, Inbound, Fulfillment, Food Service and Reverse Logistics are considered Experts. Product lines and partnerships Target has many exclusive deals with various designers and name brands, including Finnish design company Marimekko; architect Michael Graves; athletic wear company Converse; Portland-based undergarment designer Pair of Thieves; Italian fashion label Fiorucci; fashion designers Lilly Pulitzer, Liz Lange, Mossimo Giannulli, and Isaac Mizrahi, among others.[121] To further increase its fashion profile, Target also created its fashion-forward Go International line, which hires famous designers to design collections available only for a few months.[122] After hiring architect Michael Graves to design the scaffolding used to renovate the Washington Monument and contributing US$6 million to the restoration plan, Target introduced its first designer line of products in 1999, the Michael Graves Collection of housewares and home decor products.[122] Walmart and Kmart have followed Target's lead by signing exclusive designers to their stores as well.[123] Target also partners with well-established national brands to create exclusive collections for its stores.[122] Target also signed an exclusive deal with Food Network to sell VHS tapes of TV shows featuring popular chefs such as Alton Brown, Paula Deen, and Rachael Ray.[when?][citation needed] In 2005, Target introduced a major revision of prescription bottles, which it calls the ClearRx system. The redesigned bottles are color-coded, flattened-out and turned upside down, providing more room for the label. This system was based on the patent[124] by student Deborah Adler and was named one of TIME's "Most Amazing Inventions of 2005."[125] After Target sold their in-store pharmacy and clinic operations to CVS Health in December 2015, CVS discontinued the use of ClearRx.[126] Sometimes manufacturers will create red-colored items exclusively for Target. In 2002, Nintendo produced a red special edition variant of the Game Boy Advance, which featured the Target logo above the screen.[127] In 2005, IFC began a partnership with Target to promote a selection of independent films, both in Target stores and on IFC Monday nights at 9:00 pm Eastern. Originally titled IFC Cinema Red, the promotion was rebranded on-air as The Spotlight in 2007. The in-store headers refer to the selected titles as IFC Indies – Independent films chosen for Target by the Independent Film Channel.[128] In 2016, Target began to enforce gender neutrality in its marketing of toys, and stopped explicitly listed specific toys as being for "boys" or "girls."[129] This change came after the store stopped color coding toy aisles with pink and blue for "girls" or "boys," respectively.[130] This practice was expanded with the February 2016 launch of new children's decor line, Pillowfort, which replaced its Circo brand and features more gender-neutral designs and color schemes.[131] Gift cards The Target GiftCard is the retailing division's stored-value card or gift card. Target sells more gift cards than any other retailer in the United States and is one of the top sellers, by dollars and units, in the world.[132] The unique designs of their cards contribute to their higher sales, as well as Target's policy of no expiration dates or service fees.[133] Past and current designs include lenticular, "scratch and sniff" (such as peppermint during the Christmas season), glow in the dark, LED light-up, a gift card on the side of a bubble blower, a gift card that can function as a CD-ROM, and even a gift card that allows the sender to record a voice message. A current environmentally friendly gift card is made from bioplastic manufactured from corn.[134] Target rolled out a new MP3 player gift card for the 2006 holiday season. It holds 12 songs and must be purchased with an initial value of at least $50. Beginning in January 2010, Target Stores rolled out Mobile GiftCards, through which one can produce a GiftCard barcode on any web-capable cell phone. This data matrix barcode can be scanned at a Target POS like any physical card barcode, and balances can be stored, retrieved, and gifted with the convenience of a cell phone.[135] Some of these unique design ideas are patented, and these patents are assigned to the Target Brands subsidiary. For example, some such Target GiftCard designs feature a wooden front side. On May 24, 2005, the United States Patent and Trademark Office granted U.S. patent D505,450 for the "ornamental design for credit or stored value card with wood layer" to inventors Amy L. Lauer and John D. Mayhew.[136] U.S. patent 7004398, for the "stored-value card assembly including a stored-value card, an edible product, and a wrapper", was granted to Michael R. Francis and Barry C. Brooks on February 28, 2006.[137] Both patents have been assigned by their inventors to Target Brands, Inc. Target GiftCards are also collector's items. Some of the first gift cards issued are valued at over $300 (even though the card doesn't have any money on it). Every year, Target introduces new Holiday GiftCards. In 2007, Target's Holiday GiftCards featured a wind-up flashlight, a musical gift card, a gift card that lights up, and a scented gift card. Target forensic services In 2006, The Washington Post revealed that Target was operating two criminal forensics laboratories, one at its headquarters and the other in Las Vegas.[138] Originally, the lab was created with the role of investigating internal instances of theft, fraud, and other criminal actions that have occurred on its own properties. Eventually, the company began offering pro bono services to law enforcement agencies across the country. Target's Forensic Services has assisted agencies at all levels of government, including such federal agencies as the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives, the Federal Bureau of Investigation, and the United States Secret Service." (wikipedia.org)
  • Country/Region of Manufacture: China

PicClick Insights - EASTER PEEP ROPE LIGHT SIGN peep show vintage lighting wall art peeps onlyfans PicClick Exclusive

  •  Popularity - 49 watchers, 0.0 new watchers per day, 1,139 days for sale on eBay. Super high amount watching. 1 sold, 1 available.
  •  Best Price -
  •  Seller - 1,180+ items sold. 0% negative feedback. Great seller with very good positive feedback and over 50 ratings.

People Also Loved PicClick Exclusive