1936 Palestine CIGARETTE CARDS PHOTO ALBUM Jewish DEFENSE Israel NOTRIM BOOK
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Item:2763557728951936 Palestine CIGARETTE CARDS PHOTO ALBUM Jewish DEFENSE Israel NOTRIM BOOK. The 2 issues are separated in the album into 2 different independent parts. The album consists of a WHOLE COMPLETE COLLECTION of 288 photographed CARDS ( ALL cards are present - Around half of them are included in the JEWISH DEFENSE section ).
DESCRIPTION : Up for auction is an ESQUISITE cigarette cards ALBUM ( Or PHOTO BOOK ) depicting the first steps of JEWISH DEFENSE in Eretz Israel ( Then also refered to as Palestine ) in 1936 . The album "MISHMAR VE'SPORT" ( DEFENCE / WATCH and SPORT ) was published in 1936 by the DUBEK cigarette factory. For some reason , The editors combined and bound the two different issues ERETZ ISRAEL DEFENSE and ERETZ ISRAEL SPORTS together , The idea was perhaps to demonstrate as well as to encourage PHYSICAL strength and independence of the JEWISH PEOPLE in its rebuilt HOMELAND. The 2 issues are separated in the album into 2 different independent parts . The album consists of a WHOLE COMPLETE COLLECTION of 288 photographed CARDS ( ALL cards are present - Around half of them are included in the JEWISH DEFENSE section ) . Literaly hundreds of PHOTOS regarding the JEWISH SETTLEMENTS in ERETZ ISRAEL and how they are being WATCHED , PROTECTED and DEFENSED by the various NOTRIM units . NOTRIM in their typical UNIFORMS , Weapons , Armoured vehicles , Riding units , Air and sea units and defense activities etc. NUMEROUS photos of watching NOTRIM in different parts of ERETZ ISRAEL. Each of the 288 cards is accompanied by a short Hebrew explanation . Original beautifuly designed illustrated cloth HC. The NOTER image was designed by FRANZ KRAUS . Cloth spine. 11.5 x 12 " . Over 64 very heavy stock PP . 288 CARDS as issued ( ALL cards are present ). Very good condition. All 288 cards are present as issued. Tightly bound . Quite clean. Cover Somewhat worn and stained. The leaves are somewhat wavy with the pasted cards. ( Pls look at scan for accurate AS IS images ) Album will be sent inside a protective packaging . AUTHENTICITY
: The item is fully guaranteed ORIGINAL from ERETZ ISRAEL - PALESTINE 1936 ( Dated ) , Not a recent edition , Not a reprint or immitation , It holds a life long GUARANTEE for its AUTHENTICITY and
ORIGINALITY.PAYMENTS : Payment
method accepted : Paypal & All credit cards.SHIPPMENT : SHIPP
worldwide via registered airmail is $29 . Album will be sent inside a protective packaging . Handling around 5-10 days after payment. dubek Ltd. is Israel's
leading and longest-established cigarette manufacturer. The company produces,
markets and distributes cigarettes, cigars, lighters and smoking accessories.
Dubek is Israel's sole manufacturer of cigarettes and its brands include Dubek Tel Aviv (1935 - present) – Atid, Ajalon, Galil, Keshet, Daon, Basma, Aliyeh, Dubek, Gilboa, Broadway, Kinnereth, Special, Dubek No.10, Strand, Tobruk, Australia, Carmel, Ofek, Doron, Shavit, Ophir, Adir. ****** Dubek tel Aviv till mid 90’s since then in petach tikva. (From 1971 till nov 89 & jan 90 till present the only cigarette company in Israel) – American blue, Ariston, Ayalon, Broadway(1969), Capitol, Degel, Dubek, Durant, El Al, Europe(1971), Golf, Lido, Marom, Montana(1980), Monte Carlo, Mont Blanc, Mustang(1992), Nadiv, Nesher, Noblesse(1952), Ogen, Polaris, Royal(1962), Smile, Strand, Time(1965), Dubek twins, No 9(2007), Arbel, Rondo, Kameri, Telstar, Samal, Prime, Coronet, Richmond, Domino, Adir, Esquire, Extralux, I.Q, Meggido, Regie Izmir, Senator, Windsor, Corvata. (Manufactured few of Bajerano brands with same design of pack after 1963) ******* Sports in Israel are an important part of the national culture. Sports in Israel are pursued both competitively and for leisure. Israelis engage in a wide range of athletic activities, with Association football and Basketball constituting national favorites. Israel has won seven medals in the Olympic Games, in judo, canoeing and windsurfing, and an Israeli grandmaster is the holder of the 2009 Chess World Cup. Israel also has a tradition of Tennis. Another major achievement by an Israeli athlete was in Pole vaulting Major sports Association football Main article: Football in Israel The most popular sport in Israel is association football (Kadur-regel, lit. football). Teams include Israeli as well as foreign players. The sport is under the jurisdiction of the Israel Football Association. The games that draw the largest crowds are those of the Israeli Premier League - Israeli Premier League. Israel hosted and won the 1964 AFC Asian Cup. Israel qualified for the World Cup in 1970 which was held in Mexico. Mordechai Spiegler scored in a 1-1 draw against Sweden. Israel's olympic football team qualified for the 1968 Summer Olympics and the 1976 Summer Olympics both times reaching the quarter finals. Israel's highest FIFA ranking was 15th in November 2008. Famous matches of the Israeli football team include the 3–2 win in France in the 1994 world championship qualifying games, which ended up disqualifying the French team from the championship in the United States, the defeat of Austria 5–0 in 1999 during Euro 2000 qualifications, and a 2–1 win over Argentina in a friendly match in 1998, a game played in Teddy Stadium in Jerusalem. Successful Israeli players who also played outside Israel include Eli Ohana, Giora Spiegel, Ronny Rosenthal, Avi Cohen, Eyal Berkovich, Haim Revivo, Dudu Aouate and Yossi Benayoun. Basketball Main articles: Israel Basketball Association and Ligat HaAl (basketball) Maccabi Tel Aviv dominates the domestic league and is among the top teams in Europe. Maccabi Tel Aviv has won the European championship 5 times, in 1977, 1981, 2001, 2004 and 2005. Another Israeli team, Hapoel 'Migdal' Jerusalem won the ULEB Eurocup in 2004. The Israel national basketball team has participated 23 times in the European Championship. Their best achievements were a silver medal in Eurobasket 1979, and 5th place in 1953 and 1977. The national team also played in two World Championships And once in the Summer Olympic Games. Israel basketball is known for its Israel national U20 basketball team, winning silver medals twice, in 2000 and 2004, and finishing 4th twice (1994,2005), 5th (1992), and 6th (2007). Israel U-20 also took place in the U-21 World Championship, finishing twice in 7th place (2001,2005), and 6th place (1993). Israeli player Omri Casspi currently plays for the Sacramento Kings in the NBA and was selected for the NBA All-Star Weekend Rookie Challenge Track and field Track and field athletics in Israel are mainly focused around the Maccabiah Games and the international Olympic Games, where Israel has achieved notable successes during its short history. The Soviet-born Aleksandr Averbukh is by far the most successful Israeli track and field athlete, having won three gold medals in the pole vault at European championships (2000 — indoor, 2002 and 2006) as well as two medals at the World championships (1999 and 2001). Marathons Long distance running is popular in Israel. The Tel Aviv Half Marathon, the Jerusalem Half Marathon and Mount Tabor Run take place annually in March. [1]Another half marathon is held annually at Ein Gedi, near the Dead Sea.[2] In 2011, Jerusalem will host Israel's first international marathon.[3] Tennis Highly ranked players include Shlomo Glickstein (world ranked #22 at his peak), Amos Mansdorf (ranked #18 at the time), Anna Smashnova (ranked #15 at her best), Shahar Pe'er (ranked #15 by the WTA in 2007 and #19 in 2010) as well as the doubles team of Andy Ram and Jonathan Erlich (world #7 team in 2006 and 2008 Australian Open champions) - all of whom have trained at the Israel Tennis Centers. Since 2008, both men's and the women's teams have qualified for the top groups in the world - the men are in the Davis Cup world group, and the women are in the Fed Cup world group I Swimming Israel Swimming Association is the major swimming federation in Israel. Swimming is popular in Israel's many beaches along the Mediterranean coast, the Sea of Galilee, in the Red Sea at the shores of Eilat, in the Dead Sea and in swimming pools. Famous Israeli swimmers include Eitan Orbach, Michael Halika, Gal Nevo, Yoav Gath, Yoav Bruck, Vered Borochovski and Anna Gostomelsky. At the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta, Israel's team qualified to the final of the prestigious Men's 4 x 100 metre medley relay. Uri Bergman won 12 gold medals at the Paralympic Games, and other paralympic swimmers such as Izhak Mamistvalov and Keren Leibowitz won several gold medals as well Handball Israel's national handball team participated in the 2002 European Men's Handball Championship in Sweden. Local power Hapoel Rishon Lezion qualified for the quarterfinals of the EHF Champions League in 2000. Chess While chess, as an intellectual sport, has always been played in Israel, the arrival of large numbers of Jewish immigrants from the former Soviet Union in the 1990s brought many chess grandmasters to Israel and increased interest in the game. Boris Gelfand is the current world champion. Minor sports Boxing In Israel, boxing is not just a sport but an educational vehicle for helping young people overcome prejudices. The Israel Boxing Association (IBA) operates certified gyms in cities throughout the country, with 1,800 active members from Arab villages and Ethiopian and Russian immigrant population centers. Boxers as young as 11 train and participate in matches organized by the association. Israeli Yuri Foreman is the current World Boxing Association super welterweight champion.[4] Roman Greenberg is currently International Boxing Organization's (IBO's) Intercontinental heavyweight champion Wrestling Seven Israeli wrestlers will be competing at the 2010 Senior European Championship in Baku. Four are Greco-Roman wrestlers while the others are freestyle. [5]Gotsha Tzitziashvily competed at the Summer Olympics in Athens. He held the world championship title in the 84-kilogram weight class in 2003. [6] Rugby Rugby union is a minor sport brought to the country by British soldiers during the Mandate era. The first game post-independence was in 1951, organized by Leo Camron. A wave of immigration from English speaking countries, and France, since 1967 renewed interest in the sport, particularly in areas with large English-speaking populations such as Ra'anana and Jerusalem. A national league was set up in 1972, and the Israel Rugby Union formed in 1975. Israel's first international match was away to Switzerland on 25 May 1981, and ended 9-9. The Israel Union joined the International Rugby Board in 1988. Rugby union has also featured at the Maccabiah Games since 1981. Israel has entered the Rugby World Cup Sevens American football The center of American football in Israel is the Kraft Family Stadium in Jerusalem. Currently there are 5 leagues playing American contact football, in Tel Aviv, Haifa, Jerusalem (2 teams) and Modi'in. The game is mainly played by ex-pats from America, South Africa, England and France. The largest league in 2007 was men's contact, with 57 teams competing in the annual Holyland Bowl championship. The women's league is the WAFI which has 13 teams. The Yosef Goodman High School League has 12 teams, and the Tuesday Night co-ed league has 5 teams. Some 1000 players are involved in weekly football activities.[7] Netball Netball was introduced in Israel in 1999. Today there are teams in Raanana, Modi'in, Jerusalem, Efrat. Israel has sent senior and junior representatives to international events, culminating in its first international win in Ireland in June 2008. Israel is an associate member of the International Federation of Netball Associations (IFNA) and an associate member of the Federation of European Netball Associations (FENA). Baseball There are around a thousand baseball players in Israel. The Israel Baseball League, managed by Larry Baras, was established in 2007. It is the first professional baseball league in the Middle East. Currently there are 6 teams that play in 3 stadiums. The first and current champions are the Bet Shemesh Blue Sox managed by Ron Blomberg. Ice hockey See also: Israel Ice Hockey Federation Ice hockey started in Israel in 1986 when the first rink opened in Kiryat Motzkin. Israel has a following of over 1,000 ice hockey players. Israel took part in the 2007 Ice Hockey Division II World Championships. Figure skating Main article: Israeli Figure Skating Championships Israel has one regulation ice rink, located in Metulla, a city on the Lebanese border. Israel has been sending teams to the Winter Olympics since 1994. In 2002, Galit Chait and Sergei Sakhnovski finished sixth in ice dancing. [8] The Zareskis, a brother and sister ice-dancing pair, came in ninth in the 2008 world championships and first in the 2009 World University Games. [9] Olympic Games Main article: Israel at the Olympics Israel has won seven Olympic medals. Gal Fridman won Israel's first Olympic gold medal at the 2004 Summer Olympics. Maccabiah Games The Maccabiah Games are an international Jewish athletic event, similar to the Olympics, held every four years in Israel. The first games were held in 1932. Arab–Israeli conflict Due to the Arab–Israeli conflict, Israeli sportsmen and teams are barred from some competitions.[10] In many worldwide competitions, such as the Olympics, most of Arabs and some Asians competitors avoid competing against Israelis. Some countries even force its sportsmen not to compete against Israelis or in Israel. Mushir Salem Jawher, a Kenyan born marathoner, lost his Bahraini citizenship after competing in the Kinneret Marathon in Israel.[11] In a palestinian terrorist attack at the 1972 Summer Olympics in Munich, Germany, eleven members of the Israeli team were murdered. Despite the country's political problems, a growing number of Arab sportsmen are joining Israeli sports teams and contributing to Israel's success in the international arena, also playing in the Israel national football team. They include Rifat (Jimmy) Turk, Najwan Ghrayib, Walid Badir , Salim Toama, Abbas Suan and more.[12] Another Israeli Arab, Johar Abu Lashin, born in Nazareth, was an IBO Welterweight champion. Sports media Sports have been a major part of Israeli broadcasting since the early days of organized sports in the country. The media's influence on Israeli sports has increased considerably in recent years, which is most evident in Association football and Basketball, where team budgets rely largely on payments from television networks who bought the rights to broadcast sporting events.[citation needed] Television, radio, newspapers and news web sites are the major channels where Israeli sport is analyzed, broadcast and discussed. Generally, Association football attracts the major attention of Israeli media, which is evident through all of the above channels ***** Dubek Ltd. is Israel's leading and longest-established cigarette manufacturer. The company produces, markets and distributes cigarettes, cigars, lighters and smoking accessories. Dubek is Israel's sole manufacturer of cigarettes and its brands include Time, Noblesse and Golf. Dubek was established in 1935 by Martin Gehl, a German emigrant with a Zionist vision of establishing a manufacturing base in Israel. In 1960, Dubek became one of the first companies to be publicly traded on the Tel Aviv Stock Exchange. Throughout the years, Martin Gehl together with his son Zorach, expanded the business and took over all other cigarette manufacturers in Israel. Leaving Dubek as the only company in the field. In 2003 Dubek became a private company. Today the company is headed by Dr. Roy Gehl, Martin Gehl's grandson and its main offices are situated in Martin Gehl Street named after its founder. ******* Noblesse (Hebrew is an Israeli cigarette brand produced by Dubek, Israel's oldest cigarette manufacturer. The brand, launched in 1952 in a distinct green, 80mm, 'soft-pack' which has never been dramatically changed, is the oldest in Dubek's product line. The cigarette also has the highest tar (19mg) and nicotine (1.3mg) amounts available on the Israeli mass-market. Dubek has since released two different versions under the same Noblesse brand; a lower nicotine/tar blend in light-green packaging (Noblesse Blend - it is illegal to use the term 'lite' on cigarettes in Israel[1]), and an even lower nicotine/tar blend in blue packaging (Noblesse American Blue). Noblesse cigarettes are also distributed or sold by the Israel Defense Forces to soldiers in Israeli military prisons. ****** Company name: Dubek Ltd. Year of Establishment: 1935 Nature of activity: The company is the only cigarette manufacturer in Israel, manufacturing, marketing and distributing various cigarette, cigar, lighter and smoking accessory brands in Israel, the Palestinian Authority, Gaza Strip and the West Bank. In addition, the Company also imports its brands to a number of countries overseas. Brands: As the only cigarette manufacturer in Israel, Dubek has assumed the mission of developing, manufacturing and marketing an extensive variety of cigarette brands suitable for the Israeli audience in terms of various blend flavors and strengths. Company brands include Time, Noblesse, no. 9, Mustang, Europe, Nelson, Sheraton, Montana and Broadway. In addition to the brands manufactured in the Company's factory, the Company exclusively imports brands manufactured by the Danish company House of Prince: Wall Street, Rockets and Slim Agenda. Dubek employs maximal efforts to provide its clients a large variety of high-quality products, while maintaining constant innovation and offering a solution to the entire Israeli population, for all its sectors. The Company's brands enjoy an international reputation of excellence and have won many gold medals for quality in the prestigious international competition "Monde Selection". ****** Dubek, is a leading manufacturer of cigarettes and tobacco products, one of the first companies in Israeli industry. In 1935 the Company was established by a group of Industrialists, including a mechanical engineer who specialized in equipment for the tobacco industry – Mr. Martin Gehl. Since its establishment, the Company has been persistent in manufacturing high quality cigarette products. In 1960 the Company became one of the first public companies traded on the Tel Aviv Stock Exchange. In 1965 Dubek introduced its flag cigarette brand: "Time" – which has become the favorite and most sold cigarette brand in Israel over the years. In 1971 Dubek purchased two competing tobacco companies and became the only cigarette manufacturer in Israel! Headed by Mr. Zorach U. Gehl, fourth generation of cigarette manufacturers, Dubek became a modern and efficient factory in the Israeli industry. In 1985 Dubek was ranked 11th on the Dun & Bradstreet list of "The 100 leading companies in Israeli Entrepreneurship" In 2003 Dubek became a private company. In 2004 Dubek received exclusive representation rights from the Danish "House of Prince" Company for its cigarette and tobacco products and began distributing its brands. ******** Euromonitor International's Tobacco in Israel market report offers a comprehensive guide to the size and shape of the market at a national level. It provides the latest retail sales data, allowing you to identify the sectors driving growth. It identifies the leading companies, the leading brands and offers strategic analysis of key factors influencing the market - be they new product developments, packaging innovations, economic/lifestyle influences, distribution or pricing issues. Forecasts illustrate how the market is set to change. Buy online to access strategic market analysis and an interactive statistical database of duty paid retail volume and value sales, illicit trade volume, company and brand shares, pricing, distribution and production data. ******** The Jews (Hebrew: יְהוּדִים, Yehudim), also known as the Jewish people, are an ethnoreligious group originating in the Israelites or Hebrews of the Ancient Near East. The Jewish ethnicity, nationality, and religion are strongly interrelated, as Judaism is the traditional faith of the Jewish nation.[5][6][7] Converts to Judaism, whose status as Jews within the Jewish ethnos is equal to those born into it, have been absorbed into the Jewish people throughout the millennia. In Jewish tradition, Jewish ancestry is traced to the Biblical patriarchs Abraham, Isaac and Jacob in the second millennium BCE. The Jews have enjoyed three periods of political autonomy in their national homeland, the Land of Israel, twice during ancient history, and currently once again, since 1948, with the establishment of the modern State of Israel. The first of the two ancient eras spanned from 1350 to 586 BCE, and encompassed the periods of the Judges, the United Monarchy, and the Divided Monarchy of the Kingdoms of Israel and Judah, ending with the destruction of the First Temple. The second era was the period of the Hasmonean Kingdom spanning from 140 to 37 BCE. Since the destruction of the First Temple, the diaspora has been the home of most of the world's Jews.[8] Except in the modern State of Israel, Jews are a minority in every country in which they live, and they have frequently experienced persecution throughout history, resulting in a population that fluctuated both in numbers and distribution over the centuries. According to the Jewish Agency for Israel, as of 2007 there were 13.2 million Jews worldwide, 5.4 million of whom lived in Israel, 5.3 million in the United States, and the remainder distributed in communities of varying sizes around the world; this represents 0.2% of the current estimated world population.[1] (Other sources cite higher estimates. For example, the Israel Central Bureau of Statistics estimates the number of Israeli Jews to be 5.6 million and the U.S. Census Bureau estimates the American Jewish population to be as many as 6.4 million.[2][3]) These numbers include all those who consider themselves Jews whether or not affiliated with a Jewish organization.[9] The total world Jewish population, however, is difficult to measure. In addition to halakhic considerations, there are secular, political, and ancestral identification factors in defining who is a Jew that increase the figure considerably Name and etymology Main article: Jew (word) The English word Jew continues Middle English Gyw, Iewe, a loan from Old French giu, earlier juieu, ultimately from Latin Iudaeum. The Latin Iudaeus simply means Judaean, "from the land of Judaea". The Latin term itself, like the corresponding Greek Ἰουδαῖος, is a loan from Aramaic Y'hūdāi, corresponding to Hebrew: יְהוּדִי, Yehudi (sg.); יְהוּדִים, Yehudim (pl.), in origin the term for a member of the tribe of Judah or the people of the kingdom of Judah. The Hebrew word for Jew, יְהוּדִי, is pronounced [jəhuˈdiː], with the stress on the final syllable.[10] The Ladino name is ג׳ודיו, Djudio (sg.); ג׳ודיוס, Djudios (pl.); Yiddish: ייִד: Yid (sg.); ייִדן, Yidn (pl.). The etymological equivalent is in use in other languages, e.g., "Jude" in German, "juif" in French, "jøde" in Danish, "judío" in Spanish, etc., but derivations of the word "Hebrew" are also in use to describe a Jewish person, e.g., in Italian (Ebreo), and Russian: Еврей, (Yevrey).[11] The German word "Jude" is pronounced [ˈjuːdə], and is the origin of the word Yiddish.[12] (See Jewish ethnonyms for a full overview.) According to the The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition (2000): It is widely recognized that the attributive use of the noun Jew, in phrases such as Jew lawyer or Jew ethics, is both vulgar and highly offensive. In such contexts Jewish is the only acceptable possibility. Some people, however, have become so wary of this construction that they have extended the stigma to any use of Jew as a noun, a practice that carries risks of its own. In a sentence such as There are now several Jews on the council, which is unobjectionable, the substitution of a circumlocution like Jewish people or persons of Jewish background may in itself cause offense for seeming to imply that Jew has a negative connotation when used as a noun. Judaism Main article: Judaism Judaism guides its adherents in both practice and belief, and has been called not only a religion, but also a "way of life,"[14] which has made drawing a clear distinction between Judaism, Jewish culture, and Jewish identity rather difficult. Throughout history, in eras and places as diverse as the ancient Hellenic world,[15] in Europe before and after The Age of Enlightenment (see Haskalah),[16] in Islamic Spain and Portugal,[17] in North Africa and the Middle East,[17] India,[18] and China,[19] or the contemporary United States[20] and Israel,[21] cultural phenomena have developed that are in some sense characteristically Jewish without being at all specifically religious. Some factors in this come from within Judaism, others from the interaction of Jews or specific communities of Jews with their surroundings, others from the inner social and cultural dynamics of the community, as opposed to from the religion itself. This phenomenon has led to considerably different Jewish cultures unique to their own communities, each as authentically Jewish as the next.[22] Who is a Jew? Main article: Who is a Jew? Judaism shares some of the characteristics of a nation, an ethnicity, a religion, and a culture, making the definition of who is a Jew vary slightly depending on whether a religious or national approach to identity is used.[23] Generally, in modern secular usage, Jews include three groups: people who were born to a Jewish family regardless of whether or not they follow the religion, those who have some Jewish ancestral background or lineage (sometimes including those who do not have strictly matrilineal descent), and people without any Jewish ancestral background or lineage who have formally converted to Judaism and therefore are followers of the religion.[24] At times conversion has accounted for a substantial part of Jewish population growth. In the first century of the Christian era, for example, the population more than doubled, from 4 to 8–10 million within the confines of the Roman Empire, in good part as a result of a wave of conversion.[25] Historical definitions of Jewish identity have traditionally been based on halakhic definitions of matrilineal descent, and halakhic conversions. Historical definitions of who is a Jew date back to the codification of the oral tradition into the Babylonian Talmud. Interpretations of sections of the Tanakh, such as Deuteronomy 7:1–5, by learned Jewish sages, are used as a warning against intermarriage between Jews and non-Jews because "[the non-Jewish male spouse] will cause your child to turn away from Me and they will worship the gods of others." Leviticus 24:10 says that the son in a marriage between a Hebrew woman and an Egyptian man is "of the community of Israel." This contrasts with Ezra 10:2–3, where Israelites returning from Babylon vow to put aside their gentile wives and their children.[26][27] Since the Haskalah, these halakhic interpretations of Jewish identity have been challenged.[28] Ethnic divisions Main article: Jewish ethnic divisions Within the world's Jewish population there are distinct ethnic divisions, most of which are primarily the result of geographic branching from an originating Israelite population, and subsequent independent evolutions. An array of Jewish communities were established by Jewish settlers in various places around the Old World, often at great distances from one another resulting in effective and often long-term isolation from each other. During the millennia of the Jewish diaspora the communities would develop under the influence of their local environments; political, cultural, natural, and populational. Today, manifestation of these differences among the Jews can be observed in Jewish cultural expressions of each community, including Jewish linguistic diversity, culinary preferences, liturgical practices, religious interpretations, as well as degrees and sources of genetic admixture.[29] Jews are often identified as belonging to one of two major groups: the Ashkenazim, or "Germanics" (Ashkenaz meaning "Germany" in Medieval Hebrew, denoting their Central European base), and the Sephardim, or "Hispanics" (Sefarad meaning "Spain/Hispania" or "Iberia" in Hebrew, denoting their Spanish, and Portuguese, base). The Mizrahim, or "Easterners" (Mizrach being "East" in Hebrew), that is, the diverse collection of Middle Eastern and North African Jews, constitute a third major group, although they are sometimes termed Sephardi for liturgical reasons.[30] Smaller groups include, but are not restricted to, Indian Jews such as the Bene Israel, Bnei Menashe, Cochin Jews, and Bene Ephraim; the Romaniotes of Greece; the Italian Jews ("Italkim" or "Bené Roma"); the Teimanim from Yemen and Oman; various African Jews, including most numerously the Beta Israel of Ethiopia; and Chinese Jews, most notably the Kaifeng Jews, as well as various other distinct but now almost extinct communities.[31] The divisions between all these groups are approximate and their boundaries are not always clear. The Mizrahim for example, are a heterogeneous collection of North African, Central Asian, Caucasian, and Middle Eastern Jewish communities that are often as unrelated to each other as they are to any of the earlier mentioned Jewish groups. In modern usage, however, the Mizrahim are sometimes termed Sephardi due to similar styles of liturgy, despite independent development from Sephardim proper. Thus, among Mizrahim there are Iraqi Jews, Egyptian Jews, Berber Jews, Lebanese Jews, Kurdish Jews, Libyan Jews, Syrian Jews, Bukharian Jews, Mountain Jews, Georgian Jews, and various others. The Teimanim from Yemen and Oman are sometimes included, although their style of liturgy is unique and they differ in respect to the admixture found among them to that found in Mizrahim. In addition, there is a differentiation made between Sephardi migrants who established themselves in the Middle East and North Africa after the expulsion of the Jews from Spain and Portugal in the 1490s and the pre-existing Jewish communities in those regions.[31] Despite this diversity, Ashkenazi Jews represent the bulk of modern Jewry, with at least 70% of Jews worldwide (and up to 90% prior to World War II and the Holocaust). As a result of their emigration from Europe, Ashkenazim also represent the overwhelming majority of Jews in the New World continents, in countries such as the United States, Canada, Argentina, Australia, and Brazil. In France, emigration of Mizrahim from North Africa has led them to outnumber the Ashkenazim and Sephardim.[32] Only in Israel is the Jewish population representative of all groups, a melting pot independent of each group's proportion within the overall world Jewish population.[33] Jewish languages Main article: Jewish languages Hebrew is the liturgical language of Judaism (termed lashon ha-kodesh, "the holy tongue"), the language in which the Hebrew scriptures (Tanakh) were composed, and the daily speech of the Jewish people for centuries. By the fifth century BCE, Aramaic, a closely related tongue, joined Hebrew as the spoken language in Judea.[34] By the third century BCE, Jews of the diaspora were speaking Greek.[35] Modern Hebrew is now one of the two official languages of the State of Israel along with Arabic.[36] Hebrew was revived as a spoken language by Eliezer ben Yehuda, who arrived in Palestine in 1881. It hadn't been used as a mother tongue since Tannaic times.[34] For over sixteen centuries Hebrew was used almost exclusively as a liturgical language, and as the language in which most books had been written on Judaism, with a few speaking only Hebrew on the Sabbath.[37] For centuries, Jews worldwide have spoken the local or dominant languages of the regions they migrated to, often developing distinctive dialectal forms or branching off as independent languages. Yiddish is the Judæo-German language developed by Ashkenazi Jews who migrated to Central Europe, and Ladino is the Judæo-Spanish language developed by Sephardic Jews who migrated to the Iberian peninsula. Due to many factors, including the impact of the Holocaust on European Jewry, the Jewish exodus from Arab lands, and widespread emigration from other Jewish communities around the world, ancient and distinct Jewish languages of several communities, including Gruzinic, Judæo-Arabic, Judæo-Berber, Krymchak, Judæo-Malayalam and many others, have largely fallen out of use.[38] The three most commonly spoken languages among Jews today are Hebrew, English and Russian. Some Romance languages, such as French, and Spanish are also widely used.[38] Yiddish has been spoken by more Jews in history than any other language, closely followed by English and Hebrew (if modern and biblical are counted as one variety).[citation needed] Genetic studies See also: Y-chromosomal Aaron, Genealogical DNA test, and Matrilineality Genetic studies indicate various lineages found in modern Jewish populations, however, most of these populations share a lineage in common, traceable to an ancient population that underwent geographic branching and subsequent independent evolutions.[39] While DNA tests have demonstrated inter-marriage in all of the various Jewish ethnic divisions over the last 3,000 years, it was substantially less than in other populations.[40] The findings lend support to traditional Jewish accounts accrediting their founding to exiled Israelite populations, and counters theories that many or most of the world's Jewish populations were founded entirely by local populations that adopted the Jewish faith, devoid of any actual Israelite genetic input.[40][41] DNA analysis further determined that modern Jews of the priesthood tribe—"Kohanim"—share an ancestor dating back about 3,000 years.[42] This result is consistent for all Jewish populations around the world.[42] The researchers estimated that the most recent common ancestor of modern Kohanim lived between 1000 BCE (roughly the time of the Biblical Exodus) and 586 BCE, when the Babylonians destroyed the First Temple.[43] They found similar results analyzing DNA from Ashkenazi and Sephardi Jews.[43] The scientists estimated the date of the original priest based on genetic mutations, which indicated that the priest lived roughly 106 generations ago, between 2,650 and 3,180 years ago depending whether one counts a generation as 25 or 30 years.[43] Although individual and groups of converts to Judaism have historically been absorbed into contemporary Jewish populations — in the Khazars' case, absorbed into the Ashkenazim — it is unlikely that they formed a large percentage of the ancestors of modern Jewish groups, and much less that they represented their genesis as Jewish communities.[44] Male lineages: Y chromosomal DNA A study published by the National Academy of Sciences found that "the paternal gene pools of Jewish communities from Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East descended from a common Middle Eastern ancestral population", and suggested that "most Jewish communities have remained relatively isolated from neighboring non-Jewish communities during and after the Diaspora".[39] Researchers expressed surprise at the remarkable genetic uniformity they found among modern Jews, no matter where the diaspora has become dispersed around the world.[39] Other Y-chromosome findings show that the world's Jewish communities are closely related to Kurds, Syrians and Palestinians.[45][42] Skorecki and colleague wrote that "the extremely close affinity of Jewish and non-Jewish Middle Eastern populations observed ... supports the hypothesis of a common Middle Eastern origin".[42] According to another study of the same year, more than 70% of Jewish men and half of the Arab men (inhabitants of Israel and the territories only) whose DNA was studied inherited their Y-chromosomes from the same paternal ancestors who lived in the region within the last few thousand years. The results are consistent with the Biblical account of Jews and Arabs having a common ancestor. About two-thirds of Israeli Arabs and Arabs in the territories and a similar proportion of Israeli Jews are the descendants of at least three common ancestors who lived in the Middle East in the Neolithic period. However, the Palestinian Arab clade includes two Arab modal haplotypes which are found at only very low frequency among Jews, reflecting divergence and/or large scale admixture from non-local populations to the Palestinians.[46] Points in which Jewish groups differ is largely in the source and proportion of genetic contribution from host populations.[47][48] The proportion of male indigenous European genetic admixture in Ashkenazi Jews amounts to around 0.5% per generation over an estimated 80 generations, and a total admixture estimate "very similar to Motulsky's average estimate of 12.5%."[39] More recent study estimates an even lower European male contribution, and that only 5%–8% of the Ashkenazi gene pool is of European origin.[39] Female lineages: Mitochondrial DNA Before 2006, geneticists largely attributed the genesis of most of the world's Jewish populations to founding acts by males who migrated from the Middle East and "by the women from each local population whom they took as wives and converted to Judaism." However, more recent findings of studies of maternally inherited mitochondrial DNA, at least in Ashkenazi Jews, has led to a review of this archetype.[49] This research has suggested that, in addition to Israelite male, significant female founder ancestry might also derive from the Middle East.[49] In addition, Behar (2006) suggested that the rest of Ashkenazi mtDNA is originated from about 150 women, most of those were probably of Middle Eastern origin.[50] Research in 2008 found significant founder effects in many non-Asheknazi Jewish populations. In Belmonte, Azerbaijani, Georgian, Bene Israel and Libyan Jewish communities "a single mother was sufficient to explain at least 40% of their present-day mtDNA variation". In addition, "the Cochin and Tunisian Jewish communities show an attenuated pattern with two founding mothers explaining >30% of the variation." In contrast, Bulgarian, Turkish, Moroccan and Ethiopian Jews were heterogeneous with no evidence "for a narrow founder effect or depletion of mtDNA variation attributable to drift". The authors noted that "the first three of these communities were established following the Spanish expulsion and/or received large influxes of individuals from the Iberian Peninsula and high variation presently observed, probably reflects high overall mtDNA diversity among Jews of Spanish descent. Likewise, the mtDNA pool of Ethiopian Jews reflects the rich maternal lineage variety of East Africa." Jewish communities from Iraq, Iran, and Yemen showed a "third and intermediate pattern... consistent with a founding event, but not a narrow one".[51] In this and other studies Yemenite Jews differ from other Mizrahim, as well as from Ashkenazim, in the proportion of sub-Saharan African gene types which have entered their gene pools.[47] African-specific Hg L(xM,N) lineages were found only in Yemenite and Ethiopian Jewish populations.[51] Among Yemenites, the average stands at 35% lineages within the past 3,000 years.[47] Demographics Main article: Jewish population Population centres There are an estimated 13.2 million Jews worldwide.[1] The table below lists countries with significant populations. Please note that these populations represent low-end estimates of the worldwide Jewish population, accounting for around 0.2% of the world's population. State of Israel Main article: Israel Israel, the Jewish nation-state, is the only country in which Jews make up a majority of the citizens.[53][54] Israel was established as an independent democratic state on May 14, 1948.[55] Of the 120 members in its parliament, the Knesset,[56] currently, 12 members of the Knesset are Arab citizens of Israel, most representing Arab political parties and one of Israel's Supreme Court judges is a Palestinian Arab.[57] Between 1948 and 1958, the Jewish population rose from 800,000 to two million.[58] Currently, Jews account for 75.8% of the Israeli population, or 5.4 million people.[1] The early years of the state of Israel were marked by the mass immigration of Holocaust survivors and Jews fleeing Arab lands.[59] Israel also has a large population of Ethiopian Jews, many of whom were airlifted to Israel in the late 1980s and early 1990s.[60] Between 1974 and 1979 nearly 227,258 immigrants arrived in Israel, about half being from the Soviet Union.[61] This period also saw an increase in immigration to Israel from Western Europe, Latin America, and the United States[62] A trickle of immigrants from other communities has also arrived, including Indian Jews and others, as well as some descendants of Ashkenazi Holocaust survivors who had settled in countries such as the United States, Argentina, Australia and South Africa. Some Jews have emigrated from Israel elsewhere, due to economic problems or disillusionment with political conditions and the continuing Arab-Israeli conflict. Jewish Israeli emigrants are known as yordim.[63] Diaspora (outside Israel) Main article: Jewish diaspora The waves of immigration to the United States and elsewhere at the turn of the nineteenth century, the founding of Zionism and later events, including pogroms in Russia, the massacre of European Jewry during the Holocaust, and the founding of the state of Israel, with the subsequent Jewish exodus from Arab lands, all resulted in substantial shifts in the population centers of world Jewry by the end of the twentieth century.[64] Currently, the largest Jewish community in the world is located in the United States, with 5.3 million or 6.4 million Jews by various estimates. Elsewhere in the Americas, there are also large Jewish populations in Canada, Argentina, and Brazil, and smaller populations in Mexico, Uruguay, Venezuela, Chile, and several other countries (see History of the Jews in Latin America).[1][3] Western Europe's largest Jewish community can be found in France, home to 490,000 Jews, the majority of whom are immigrants or refugees from North African Arab countries such as Algeria, Morocco, and Tunisia (or their descendants).[66] There are 295,000 Jews in the United Kingdom. In Eastern Europe, there are anywhere from 350,000 to one million Jews living in the former Soviet Union, but exact figures are difficult to establish. The fastest-growing Jewish community in the world, outside Israel, is the one in Germany, especially in Berlin, its capital. Tens of thousands of Jews from the former Eastern Bloc have settled in Germany since the fall of the Berlin Wall.[67] The Arab countries of North Africa and the Middle East were home to around 900,000 Jews in 1945. Fueled by anti-Zionism[68] after the founding of Israel, systematic persecution caused almost all of these Jews to flee to Israel, North America, and Europe in the 1950s (see Jewish exodus from Arab lands). Today, around 8,000 Jews remain in all Arab nations combined.[4] Iran is home to around 10,800 Jews, down from a population of 100,000 Jews before the 1979 revolution. After the revolution some of the Iranian Jews emigrated to Israel or Europe but most of them emigrated (with their non-Jewish Iranian compatriots) to the United States (especially Los Angeles, where the principal community is called "Tehrangeles").[4][69] Outside Europe, the Americas, the Middle East, and the rest of Asia, there are significant Jewish populations in Australia and South Africa.[4] Demographic changes Assimilation Since at least the time of the Ancient Greeks, a proportion of Jews have assimilated into the wider non-Jewish society around them, by either choice or force, ceasing to practice Judaism and losing their Jewish identity.[70] Assimilation took place in all areas, and during all time periods,[70] with some Jewish communities, for example the Kaifeng Jews of China, disappearing entirely.[71] The advent of the Jewish Enlightenment of the 1700s (see Haskalah) and the subsequent emancipation of the Jewish populations of Europe and America in the 1800s, accelerated the situation, encouraging Jews to increasingly participate in, and become part of, secular society. The result has been a growing trend of assimilation, as Jews marry non-Jewish spouses and stop participating in the Jewish community.[72] Rates of interreligious marriage vary widely: In the United States, they are just under 50%,[73] in the United Kingdom, around 53%, in France, around 30%,[74] and in Australia and Mexico, as low as 10%.[75][76] In the United States, only about a third of children from intermarriages affiliate themselves with Jewish religious practice.[77] The result is that most countries in the Diaspora have steady or slightly declining religiously Jewish populations as Jews continue to assimilate into the countries in which they live. War and persecution Main article: Persecution of Jews Related articles: Antisemitism, History of antisemitism, New antisemitism The Jewish people and Judaism have experienced various persecutions throughout Jewish history. During late Antiquity and the early Middle Ages the Roman Empire (in its later phases known as the Byzantine Empire) repeatedly repressed the Jewish population, first by ejecting them from their homelands during the pagan Roman era and later by officially establishing them as second-class citizens during the Christian Roman era.[78][79] According to James Carroll, "Jews accounted for 10% of the total population of the Roman Empire. By that ratio, if other factors had not intervened, there would be 200 million Jews in the world today, instead of something like 13 million."[80] Of course, there are many other complex demographic factors involved; the rate of population growth, epidemics, migration, assimilation, and conversion could all have played major roles in the current size of the global Jewish population. Later in medieval Western Europe, further persecutions of Jews in the name of Christianity occurred, notably during the Crusades—when Jews all over Germany were massacred—and a series of expulsions from England, Germany, France, and, in the largest expulsion of all, Spain and Portugal after the Reconquista (the Catholic Reconquest of the Iberian Peninsula), where both unbaptized Sephardic Jews and the ruling Muslim Moors were expelled.[81][82] In the Papal States, which existed until 1870, Jews were required to live only in specified neighborhoods called ghettos.[83] In the 19th and (before the end of World War II) 20th centuries, the Roman Catholic Church adhered to a distinction between "good antisemitism" and "bad antisemitism". The "bad" kind promoted hatred of Jews because of their descent. This was considered un-Christian because the Christian message was intended for all of humanity regardless of ethnicity; anyone could become a Christian. The "good" kind criticized alleged Jewish conspiracies to control newspapers, banks, and other institutions, to care only about accumulation of wealth, etc.[84] Islam and Judaism have a complex relationship. Traditionally Jews and Christians living in Muslim lands, known as dhimmis, were allowed to practice their religions and to administer their internal affairs, but subject to certain conditions.[85] They had to pay the jizya (a per capita tax imposed on free adult non-Muslim males) to the Islamic state.[85] Dhimmis had an inferior status under Islamic rule. They had several social and legal disabilities such as prohibitions against bearing arms or giving testimony in courts in cases involving Muslims.[86] Many of the disabilities were highly symbolic. The one described by Bernard Lewis as "most degrading"[87] was the requirement of distinctive clothing, not found in the Qur'an or hadith but invented in early medieval Baghdad; its enforcement was highly erratic.[87] On the other hand, Jews rarely faced martyrdom or exile, or forced compulsion to change their religion, and they were mostly free in their choice of residence and profession.[88] Notable exceptions include the massacre of Jews and/or forcible conversion of some Jews by the rulers of the Almohad dynasty in Al-Andalus in the 12th century,[89] as well as in Islamic Persia,[90] and the forced confinement of Morrocan Jews to walled quarters known as mellahs beginning from the 15th century and especially in the early 19th century.[91] In modern times, it has become commonplace for standard antisemitic themes to be conflated with anti-Zionist publications and pronouncements of Islamic movements such as Hezbollah and Hamas, in the pronouncements of various agencies of the Islamic Republic of Iran, and even in the newspapers and other publications of Turkish Refah Partisi."[92] Throughout history, many rulers, empires and nations have oppressed their Jewish populations or sought to eliminate them entirely. Methods employed ranged from expulsion to outright genocide; within nations, often the threat of these extreme methods was sufficient to silence dissent. The history of antisemitism includes the First Crusade which resulted in the massacre of Jews;[81] the Spanish Inquisition (led by Torquemada) and the Portuguese Inquisition, with their persecution and Auto de fé against the New Christians and Marrano Jews;[93] the Bohdan Chmielnicki Cossack massacres in Ukraine;[94] the Pogroms backed by the Russian Tsars;[95] as well as expulsions from Spain, Portugal, England, France, Germany, and other countries in which the Jews had settled.[82] The persecution reached a peak in Adolf Hitler's Final Solution, which led to the Holocaust and the slaughter of approximately 6 million Jews from 1939 to 1945.[96]According to a recent study published in the American Journal of Human Genetics 19.8% of the modern Iberian population has Sephardic Jewish ancestry,[97] indicating that the number of conversos may have been much higher than originally thought.[98] The most notable modern day persecution of Jews remains the Holocaust — the state-led systematic persecution and genocide of European Jews (and certain communities of North African Jews in European controlled North Africa) and other minority groups of Europe during World War II by Nazi Germany and its collaborators.[99] The persecution and genocide were accomplished in stages. Legislation to remove the Jews from civil society was enacted years before the outbreak of World War II.[100] Concentration camps were established in which inmates were used as slave labour until they died of exhaustion or disease.[101] Where the Third Reich conquered new territory in eastern Europe, specialized units called Einsatzgruppen murdered Jews and political opponents in mass shootings.[102] Jews and Roma were crammed into ghettos before being transported hundreds of miles by freight train to extermination camps where, if they survived the journey, the majority of them were killed in gas chambers.[103] Virtually every arm of Germany's bureaucracy was involved in the logistics of the mass murder, turning the country into what one Holocaust scholar has called "a genocidal nation."[104] Migrations Throughout Jewish history, Jews have repeatedly been directly or indirectly expelled from both their original homeland, and the areas in which they have resided. This experience as both immigrants and emigrants (see: Jewish refugees) have shaped Jewish identity and religious practice in many ways, and are thus a major element of Jewish history.[106] An incomplete list of such migrations includes: The patriarch Abraham was a migrant to the land of Canaan from Ur of the Chaldees.[107] The Children of Israel experienced the Exodus (meaning "departure" or "exit" in Greek) from ancient Egypt, as recorded in the Book of Exodus.[108] The Kingdom of Israel was sent into permanent exile and scattered all over the world (or at least to unknown locations) by Assyria.[109] The Kingdom of Judah was exiled by Babylonia,[110] then returned to Judea by Cyrus the Great of the Persian Achaemenid Empire,[111] and then many were exiled again by the Roman Empire.[112] The 2,000 year dispersion of the Jewish diaspora beginning under the Roman Empire, as Jews were spread throughout the Roman world and, driven from land to land, and settled wherever they could live freely enough to practice their religion. Over the course of the diaspora the center of Jewish life moved from Babylonia[113] to the Iberian Peninsula[114] to Poland[115] to the United States[116] and, as a result of Zionism, to Israel.[117] Many expulsions during the Middle Ages and Enlightenment in Europe, including: 1290, 16,000 Jews were expelled from England, see the (Statute of Jewry); in 1396, 100,000 from France; in 1421 thousands were expelled from Austria. Many of these Jews settled in Eastern Europe, especially Poland.[118] Following the Spanish Inquisition in 1492, the Spanish population of around 200,000 Sephardic Jews were expelled by the Spanish crown and Catholic church, followed by expulsions in 1493 in Sicily (37,000 Jews) and Portugal in 1496. The expelled Jews fled mainly to the Ottoman Empire, the Netherlands, and North Africa, others migrating to Southern Europe and the Middle East.[119] During the 19th century, France's policies of equal citizenship regardless of religion led to the immigration of Jews (especially from Eastern and Central Europe).[120] The arrival of millions of Jews in the New World, including immigration of over two million Eastern European Jews to the United States from 1880–1925, see History of the Jews in the United States and History of the Jews in Russia and the Soviet Union.[121] The Pogroms in Eastern Europe,[95] the rise of modern antisemitism,[122] the Holocaust,[123] and the rise of Arab nationalism[124] all served to fuel the movements and migrations of huge segments of Jewry from land to land and continent to continent, until they arrived back in large numbers at their original historical homeland in Israel.[117] The Islamic Revolution of Iran forced many Iranian Jews to flee Iran. Most found refuge in the US (particularly Los Angeles, CA) and Israel. Smaller communities of Persian Jews exist in Canada and Western Europe.[125] When the Soviet Union collapsed, many of the Jews in the affected territory (who had been refuseniks) were suddenly allowed to leave. This produced a wave of migration to Israel in the early 1990s.[63] Growth Israel is the only country with a consistently growing Jewish population due to natural population increase, though the Jewish populations of other countries in Europe and North America have recently increased due to immigration. In the Diaspora, in almost every country the Jewish population in general is either declining or steady, but Orthodox and Haredi Jewish communities, whose members often shun birth control for religious reasons, have experienced rapid population growth.[126] Orthodox and Conservative Judaism discourage proselytization to non-Jews, but many Jewish groups have tried to reach out to the assimilated Jewish communities of the Diaspora in order for them to reconnect to their Jewish roots. Additionally, while in principle Reform Judaism favors seeking new members for the faith, this position has not translated into active proselytism, instead taking the form of an effort to reach out to non-Jewish spouses of intermarried couples.[127] There is also a trend of Orthodox movements pursuing secular Jews in order to give them a stronger Jewish identity so there is less chance of intermarriage. As a result of the efforts by these and other Jewish groups over the past twenty-five years, there has been a trend of secular Jews becoming more religiously observant, known as the Baal Teshuva movement, though the demographic implications of the trend are unknown.[128] Additionally, there is also a growing movement of Jews by Choice by gentiles who make the decision to head in the direction of becoming Jews.[129] ****** ****** Franz Kraus (also known as Franz Krausz; 13 May 1905, St. Pölten, Austria – 1998, Tel Aviv, Israel) was an Israeli graphic designer Biography 1910–23, Kraus grew up in Graz, Austria, and claimed that his favorite place was the art studio of brother Emil Kraus. (Emil went on to study at the Akademie der bildenden Künste in Vienna and at Alexander Archipenko's own art school in Berlin, and became a prominent member of the Sezession Graz. Emil's twin brother immigrated to the United States in 1939. Their other brother, Otto, died in one of the Nazi concentration camps in the 1940s, and Emil under unknown circumstances in Paris.) Franz's first employment, arranged by his father, was as a window decorator of the bookstore of the Löwit-Verlag, a major publisher in Vienna. He had settled in Vienna in 1923 at age 18, where he resided for three years. As a Jew, his interest in Zionist issues began to develop and was encouraged by his reading the speeches of Chaim Weizman and Ze'ev (Vladimir) Jabotinsky. Kraus lived in Berlin 1926–33, where he eventually assumed the position of the sole graphic designer of the Friedrich Ernst Hübsch-Verlag (publisher). The job fulfilled his early desire to become an artist; he had envied brother Emil's talent. As a night student, he studied in the Reimann Schule in Berlin, the city where he met his wife-to-be Anni. Due to the frightening public antisemitic incidences there, he and Anni decided to immigrate to Palestine. They spent a year, 1933–34, in Barcelona (arriving there from Paris) where Franz designed Hollywood-film posters. Anni was a photographer for a German journalist whose wife was Jewish, a circumstance which possibly supported the association. Because there was no rabbi or an active synagogue in Barcelona, they could not be married as Austrian citizens and were rather wed in a civil ceremony at the German embassy. Fortunately, through a generous uncle of Anni, they were able to buy visas to Palestine, sailing from Marseille to the port of Jaffa, arriving October 1934. The Krauses moved to nearby Tel Aviv, a small, sleepy village at this time and one having only been established in 1909. Through receptive manufacturers, Franz was able to acquire clients for advertising. His forte was the design of posters. An initial client was Dubek ciagarettes, for which he worked for 45 years. Another on-going client was Elite, a candy manufacturer (today owned by Straus). Prior to Kraus who dealt with every aspect of graphic design, business people in pre-1948 Palestine and early Israel knew little about advertising methods. Even though Kraus employed photography later in his career, his most dynamic and colorful work was realized through his hand-painted artwork, frequently in gouache, sometimes calling on photographic studies shot by his wife. His best-known image, though not his aesthetic best, is the "Visit Palestine" poster of 1936. He was prolific but, even so, made very little money from frugal clients and, according to Kraus himself, was unable to work gratis. He is one of Israel's most-accomplished graphic designers; the others are Gabriel and Maxim Shamir (1909–92, 1910–90), Dan Reisinger (b. 1934) and David Tartakover (b. 1944). ebay478
Condition:Used
Condition:Very good condition. All 288 cvards are present as issued. Tightly bound . Quite clean. Cover Somewhat worn and stained. The leaves are somewhat wavy with the pasted cards. ( Pls look at scan for accurate AS IS images )
Country of Manufacture:Israel
Country/Region of Manufacture:Israel
Religion:Judaism
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