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André-Henri Torcheux  , born on  January  1912 in Paris  and died on  November  20  1998 in Massy  , is a sculptor  and medalist  French  .

Biography 

André-Henri Torcheux was a student of Paul Niclausse  (1879-1958) at the National School of Decorative Arts  in Paris  , then of Jean Boucher  (1870-1939) at the École nationale supérieure des beaux-arts  in Paris. He won a silver medal at the Salon des Artistes français 1  . He defended his doctoral thesis  at the Paris Urban Planning Institute  in 1941 with the theme "  A page of sculpture in the city, the memorials of the Great War, Seine"  2  .

He has been teaching as a drawing teacher for the city of Paris since 1946 3  .

Works 

In 1967, the Monnaie de Paris struck two bronze and silver medals, representing André Breton  on one and Francis Picabia  on the other, both sculpted by Torcheux. Two years later, in 1969, a Tristan Tzara  medal was issued, sculpted by the same artist 4  .

  • Honoré de Balzac  , bronze bust, Vendôme  , Ronsard park 5   ;
  • Hector Berlioz  , medal for the centenary of the composer's death, commissioned by the Hector Berlioz National Association (1969);
  • Bust of Charles d'Orléans  , Château de Blois  6  .

Isaac Bashevis Singer  ( Yiddish :  יצחק באַשעװיס זינגער ‎; November 11, 1903 [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7]  – July 24, 1991) was a Polish-American writer [8] [9] [10]  in  Yiddish , [11]  awarded the  Nobel Prize in Literature  in 1978. [12]  The Polish form of his birth name was  Icek Hersz Zynger . [13]  He used his mother's first name in an initial literary pseudonym,  Izaak Baszewis , which he later expanded. [14]  He was a leading figure in the  Yiddish literary movement , writing and publishing only in  Yiddish . He was also awarded two U.S.  National Book Awards ,  one in Children's Literature  for his memoir  A Day Of Pleasure: Stories of a Boy Growing Up in Warsaw  (1970) [15]  and  one in Fiction  for his collection  A Crown of Feathers and Other Stories  (1974). [16]

Isaac Bashevis Singer was born in 1903 in Leoncin  village near Warsaw , capital of Congress Poland  in the Russian Empire  - lands that were a part of the Russian partition  territories of the former Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth . A few years later, the family moved to a nearby Polish town of Radzymin . The exact date of his birth is uncertain, but most probably it was November 11 a date similar to the one that Singer gave both to his official biographer Paul Kresh,[17]  his secretary Dvorah Telushkin,[18]  and Rabbi William Berkowitz.[19]  The year 1903 is consistent with the historical events that his brother refers to in their childhood memoirs, including the death of Theodor Herzl . The often-quoted birth date, July 14, 1904 was made up by the author in his youth, possibly to make himself younger to avoid the draft.[20]

His father was a Hasidic  rabbi  and his mother, Bathsheba, was the daughter of the rabbi of Biłgoraj . Singer later used her name in his pen name "Bashevis" (Bathsheba's). Both his older siblings, sister Esther Kreitman  (1891–1954) and brother Israel Joshua Singer  (1893–1944), became writers as well. Esther was the first of the family to write stories.[21]

The family moved to the court of the Rabbi of Radzymin in 1907, where his father became head of the Yeshiva. After the Yeshiva building burned down in 1908, the family moved to Warsaw, a flat at Krochmalna Street 10. In the spring of 1914, the Singers moved to No. 12.[22]

The street where Singer grew up was located in the impoverished, Yiddish -speaking Jewish quarter of Warsaw. There his father served as a rabbi, and was called on to be a judge, arbitrator, religious authority and spiritual leader in the Jewish community.[23]  The unique atmosphere of pre-war Krochmalna Street can be found both in the collection of Varshavsky-stories , which tell stories from Singer's childhood,[24]  as well as in those novels and stories which take place in pre-war Warsaw.[

In 1935, four years before the Nazis  invasion , Singer emigrated from Poland  to the United States. He was fearful of the growing threat in neighboring Germany.[27]  The move separated the author from his common-law first wife Runia Pontsch and son Israel Zamir (1929–2014); they emigrated to Moscow  and then Palestine . The three met again twenty years later in 1955.

Singer settled in New York City , where he took up work as a journalist and columnist for The Jewish Daily Forward  (פֿאָרװערטס ), a Yiddish-language newspaper. After a promising start, he became despondent and for some years felt "Lost in America " (title of his 1974 novel published in Yiddish; published in English in 1981).

In 1938, he met Alma Wassermann née  Haimann (1907–1996), a German-Jewish refugee from Munich . They married in 1940, and their union seemed to release energy in him; he returned to prolific writing and to contributing to the Forward . In addition to his pen name of "Bashevis," he published under the pen names of "Warszawski" (pron. Varshavsky) during World War II,[citation needed ] and "D. Segal."[28]  They lived for many years in the Belnord  apartment building on Manhattan's Upper West Side .[29]

In 1981, Singer delivered a commencement address at the University at Albany , and was presented with an honorary doctorate.[30]

Singer died on July 24, 1991 in Surfside, Florida , after suffering a series of strokes . He was buried in Cedar Park Cemetery, Emerson , New Jersey.[31] [32]  A street in Surfside, Florida is named Isaac Singer Boulevard in his honor; and so is a city square in Lublin , Poland. The full academic scholarship for undergraduate students at the University of Miami  is also named in his honor.

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The Slave  (novel) Jump to navigation Jump to search The Slave
First English edition
AuthorIsaac Bashevis Singer
Original titleDer Knecht
CountryUnited States
LanguageYiddish
PublisherFarrar Straus Giroux
Publication date 1962
Pages311

The Slave  (Yiddish : דער קנעכט ‎, romanized :  Der Knecht ) is a novel by Isaac Bashevis Singer  originally written in Yiddish  that tells the story of Jacob, a scholar sold into slavery in the aftermath of the Khmelnytsky massacres , who falls in love with a gentile woman. Through the eyes of Jacob, the book recounts the history of Jewish settlement in Poland  at the end of the 17th century. While most of the book's protagonists are Jews, the book is also a criticism of Orthodox Jewish  society.[1]  The English version was translated by the author and Cecil Hemley.[2]

Contents
  • 1 Plot summary
  • 2 Stage version
  • 3 Themes
  • 4 Critical reception
  • 5 References
  • 6 External links

Plot summary

Jacob, the hero of the book, is a resident of Josefov, a Jewish town in Poland. After the Khmelnytsky massacres , in which his wife and three children were murdered by Cossacks, Jacob is sold as a slave to gentile peasants. During his years of slavery, he strives to maintain his Judaism by observing as many Jewish rituals as possible and by maintaining high ethical standards for himself.

While in captivity, Jacob falls in love with his master's daughter, Wanda. While Jewish law and custom forbids Jews from even touching a woman a man is not married to and also forbids Jews from cohabiting with gentiles, Jacob's love for Wanda is too powerful to overcome and they have sex. Later, Jews from Josefov come to ransom him by paying off Wanda's father and he returns to Josefov. While in Josefov, Jacob dreams of Wanda. In his dream, Wanda is pregnant and asks Jacob why he abandoned her and left the child in her womb to be raised by gentiles. Jacob decides to return to the gentile village, take Wanda as his wife, and help her convert to Judaism. Jacob and Wanda reach another town, Pilitz, where Jacob begins to make his living as a teacher. In Pilitz, Wanda becomes known as 'Sarah' and Jacob instructs her to be pretend that she is deaf and mute so as not to reveal her gentile origins. Sarah thirsts for knowledge about Judaism and at night, Jacob teaches her Jewish beliefs and practices. She suffers in silence as the women of the town gossip about her right in front of her, as they believe she is deaf and cannot hear them. Her secret is finally discovered when she screams loudly during the birth of her and Jacob's son. Sarah dies during the difficult birth, and is given a "donkey's burial" outside of the Jewish cemetery.

Jacob names his baby son Benjamin (he likens himself to the biblical Jacob  whose wife, Rachel , died giving birth to biblical Benjamin ); he travels to the Land of Israel  with the infant, and Benjamin grows up to become a lecturer in a yeshiva in Jerusalem.

20 years later, Jacob returns to Pilitz and discovers that the town had grown and that, with it, the cemetery had grown so much that the place where Sarah was buried is now within the bounds of the cemetery. The place where Sarah was buried is not prominently marked and is unknown to the Jews of Pilitz. Jacob is old and weak and dies during his visit to Pilitz. By coincidence (or perhaps, by way of a miracle), as a grave is being dug for him, the bones of Sarah are found. The townspeople decide to bury them together, side by side.

Stage version

The book was adapted by Yevgeny Arye  and Yelena Laskina into a play that had its theatrical premiere at Lincoln Center  in New York City  in 2004.[3]

Themes

The book was published in 1962, a time in Jewish history in which the magnitude of the Holocaust  was beginning to surface. The book's setting during the aftermath of the Khmelnytsky massacres could be seen as a historical parallel to what many American Jews were thinking and feeling during the early 1960s.[4]

The book contains criticism of the hypocrisy inherent in a narrow-minded interpretation of Judaism. The Jews of Pilitz in The Slave  make a point of keeping commandments between man and God, but many treat Sarah and Jacob in ways that does not square well with Jewish ideals. The character of Gershon is especially cruel and often gets his way simply by bullying others, yet he keeps a strictly kosher home.

Also prominent in the story is the theme of vegetarianism. Singer himself was a passionate vegetarian and Jacob's attitude towards animals during his captivity and his explanation at the end of the novel of his vegetarian philosophy could be seen as Singer writing autobiographically.[1]

Critical reception

Writing in the New York Times, Orville Prescott  called the novel a 'Jewish Pilgrim's Progress ', in which the hero keeps his faith despite all setbacks. Prescott liked the pacy, eventful plot but criticised the way the characters were portrayed as symbols rather than human beings.[5]

Rafael Broch [6]  notes how the purity of the rural scene and of the hero's faith contrast with the vulgarity of the 'lewd peasants and prejudiced landowners'. Broch calls this a Romeo and Juliet  tale in 'circumstances even less permissive'.

For Ted Hughes [7]  the book is 'burningly radiant, intensely beautiful'.

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The  Khmelnytsky Uprising  ( Polish :  Powstanie Chmielnickiego ; in Ukraine known as  Khmelʹnychchyna  or  Ukrainian :  повстання Богдана Хмельницького ;  Lithuanian :  Chmelnickio sukilimas ;  Russian :  восстание Богдана Хмельницкого ), also known as the  Cossack-Polish War , [1]  the  Chmielnicki Uprising , the  Khmelnytsky massacre [2]  or the  Khmelnytsky insurrection [3]  was a  Cossack   rebellion  that took place between 1648 and 1657 in the eastern territories of the  Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth , which led to the creation of a  Cossack Hetmanate  in Ukraine. Under the command of  Hetman   Bohdan Khmelnytsky , the  Zaporozhian Cossacks , allied with the  Crimean Tatars  and local Ukrainian  peasantry , fought against Polish domination and against the Commonwealth forces. The insurgency was accompanied by mass atrocities committed by Cossacks against the civilian population, especially against the  Roman Catholic  clergy and the Jews. [4

Massacres Massacre  of 3000–5000 Polish captives after the battle of Batih  in 1652

Before the Khmelnytsky uprising, magnates had sold and leased certain privileges to arendators , many of whom were Jewish, who earned money from the collections they made for the magnates by receiving a percentage of an estate's revenue. By not supervising their estates directly, the magnates left it to the leaseholders and collectors to become objects of hatred to the oppressed and long-suffering peasants. Khmelnytsky told the people that the Poles had sold them as slaves "into the hands of the accursed Jews." With this as their battle cry, Cossacks and the peasantry massacred  numerous Jewish and Polish–Lithuanian townsfolk, as well as szlachta  during the years 1648–1649. The contemporary 17th-century Eyewitness Chronicle  (Yeven Mezulah) by Nathan ben Moses Hannover  states:

Wherever they found the szlachta , royal officials or Jews, they [Cossacks] killed them all, sparing neither women nor children. They pillaged the estates of the Jews and nobles, burned churches and killed their priests, leaving nothing whole. It was a rare individual in those days who had not soaked his hands in blood ...[22]

Jews [ First edition of Yeven Mezulah  (1653): "I write of the Evil Decrees of Chmiel , may his name be obliterated ... in (5)'408 to '411 Anno Mundi "

Most Jewish communities in the rebellious Hetmanate were devastated by the uprising and ensuing massacres, though occasionally a Jewish population was spared, notably after the capture of the town of Brody  (the population of which was 70% Jewish). According to the book known as History of the Rus , Khmelnytsky's rationale was largely mercantile and the Jews of Brody, which was a major trading centre, were judged to be useful "for turnovers and profits" and thus they were only required to pay "moderate indemnities" in kind.[23]

Due to the widespread murders, Jewish elders at the Council of Vilna banned merrymaking by a decree on July 3, 1661: they set limitations on wedding celebrations, public drinking, fire dances, masquerades, and Jewish comic entertainers.[24]  Stories about massacre victims who had been buried alive, cut to pieces, or forced to kill one another spread throughout Europe and beyond. These stories filled many with despair. There was a revival of Hasidism and the ideas of Isaac Luria , and the identification of Sabbatai Zevi  as the Messiah.[25]

The accounts of contemporary Jewish chroniclers of the events tended to emphasize large casualty figures, but since the end of the 20th century, they have been re-evaluated downwards. Early 20th-century estimates of Jewish deaths were based on the accounts of the Jewish chroniclers of the time, and tended to be high, ranging from 100,000 to 500,000 or more; in 1916 Simon Dubnow  stated:

The losses inflicted on the Jews of Poland during the fatal decade 1648–1658 were appalling. In the reports of the chroniclers, the number of Jewish victims varies between one hundred thousand and five hundred thousand. But even if we accept the lower figure, the number of victims still remains colossal, even exceeding the catastrophes of the Crusades and the Black Death in Western Europe. Some seven hundred Jewish communities in Poland had suffered massacre and pillage. In the Ukrainian cities situated on the left banks of the Dnieper, the region populated by Cossacks ... the Jewish communities had disappeared almost completely. In the localities on the right shore of the Dneiper or in the Polish part of Ukraine as well as those of Volhynia and Podolia, wherever Cossacks had made their appearance, only about one tenth of the Jewish population survived.[26]

From the 1960s to the 1980s historians still considered 100,000 a reasonable estimate of the Jews killed and, according to Edward Flannery , many considered it "a minimum".[27]  Max Dimont  in Jews, God, and History , first published in 1962, writes "Perhaps as many as 100,000 Jews perished in the decade of this revolution." [28]  Edward Flannery , writing in The Anguish of the Jews: Twenty-Three Centuries of Antisemitism , first published in 1965, also gives figures of 100,000 to 500,000, stating "Many historians consider the second figure exaggerated and the first a minimum".[27]  Martin Gilbert  in his Jewish History Atlas  published in 1976 states "Over 100,000 Jews were killed; many more were tortured or ill-treated, others fled ..."[29]  Many other sources of the time give similar figures.[30]

Although many modern sources still give estimates of Jews killed in the uprising at 100,000[31]  or more,[32]  others put the numbers killed at between 40,000 and 100,000,[33]  and recent academic studies have argued fatalities were even lower. Modern historiographic  methods, particularly from the realm of historical demography , became more widely adopted and tended to result in lower fatality numbers.[20]  Newer studies have estimated the Jewish population of that period in the affected areas of Ukraine is estimated at around 50,000.[34]  According to Orest Subtelny :

Weinryb cites the calculations of S. Ettinger  [he ]  indicating that about 50,000 Jews lived in the area where the uprising occurred. See B. Weinryb, "The Hebrew Chronicles on Bohdan Khmelnytsky and the Cossack-Polish War", Harvard Ukrainian Studies  1 (1977): 153–77. While many of them were killed, Jewish losses did not reach the hair-raising figures that are often associated with the uprising. In the words of Weinryb (The Jews of Poland , 193–4), "The fragmentary information of the period—and to a great extent information from subsequent years, including reports of recovery—clearly indicate that the catastrophe may have not been as great as has been assumed."[35]

A 2003 study by Israeli demographer Shaul Stampfer  of Hebrew University  dedicated solely to the issue of Jewish casualties in the uprising concludes that 18,000–20,000 Jews were killed of a total population of 40,000.[36]  Paul Robert Magocsi  states that Jewish chroniclers of the 17th century "provide invariably inflated figures with respect to the loss of life among the Jewish population of Ukraine. The numbers range from 60,000–80,000 (Nathan Hannover) to 100,000 (Sabbatai Cohen), but that "[t]he Israeli scholars Shmuel Ettinger and Bernard D. Weinryb speak instead of the 'annihilation of tens of thousands of Jewish lives', and the Ukrainian-American historian Jarowlaw Pelenski narrows the number of Jewish deaths to between 6,000 and 14,000".[37]  Orest Subtelny  concludes:

Between 1648 and 1656, tens of thousands of Jews—given the lack of reliable data, it is impossible to establish more accurate figures—were killed by the rebels, and to this day the Khmelnytsky uprising is considered by Jews to be one of the most traumatic events in their history.[35]

In the two decades following the uprising the Commonwealth suffered two more major wars (The Deluge  and Russo-Polish War (1654–67) ; during that period total Jewish casualties are estimated as at least 100,000.[21]

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