Greek city of
Syracuse
in
Sicily
Time of Timoleon 344-336 B.C.
Bronze Trias 20mm (9.15 grams)
Reference: Sear 1193; B.M.C. 2. 289
ΣYPA - Head of
Athena
left, wearing
Corinthian helmet bound with olive-wreath, dolphins,
before and behind.
Hippocamp
left, with curled wing.
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The hippocamp or hippocampus (plural: hippocamps or hippocampi;
Greek
: ἱππόκαμπος ,
from ἵππος , "horse" and
κάμπος , "monster"), often called a
sea-horse in
English
, is a mythological creature shared by
Phoenician
[3]
and
Greek mythology
, though the name by which it is
recognised is purely Greek; it became part of
Etruscan mythology
. It has typically been
depicted as a horse in its forepart with a coiling, scaly, fishlike
hindquarter
.
Mythology
Hippocamp in Roman mosaic in the
thermae
at
Aquae Sulis
(Bath)
A sea-lion mosaic in the Baths of Neptune,
Ostia Antica
Homer
describes
Poseidon
, who was god of horses (Poseidon
Hippios ), earthquakes, and the sea, drawn by "brazen-hoofed"
horses over the sea's surface, and
Apollonius of Rhodes
, being consciously archaic
in Argonautica
(iv.1353ff), describes the
horse of Poseidon emerging from the sea and galloping away across the
Libyan
sands.[4]
In
Hellenistic
and
Roman
imagery, however, Poseidon (or Roman
Neptune
) often drives a sea-chariot
drawn by hippocampi. Thus hippocamps sport with this god in both ancient
depictions and much more modern ones, such as in the waters of the 18th-century
Trevi Fountain
in Rome surveyed by Neptune from
his
niche
above. (illustration, right )
The appearance of hippocamps in both
freshwater
and
saltwater
is counter-intuitive to a modern
audience, though not to an ancient one. The Greek picture of the natural
hydrological cycle
did not take account of the
condensation of atmospheric water as rain to replenish the
water table
, but imagined the refreshening of
the waters of the sea oozing back landwards through vast underground
caverns
and
aquifers
, rising replenished and freshened in
springs.
Thus it was natural for a temple at
Helike
in the coastal plain of
Achaea
to be dedicated to Poseidon
Helikonios , (the Poseidon of Helicon), the sacred spring of
Boeotian Helikon
.[6]
When an earthquake suddenly submerged the city, the temple's bronze Poseidon
accompanied by hippocamps continued to snag fishermens' nets.[7]
Likewise, the hippocamp was considered an appropriate decoration for
mosaics
in Roman
thermae
or public baths, as at
Aquae Sulis
modern day
Bath
in Britannia (illustration, below ).
Poseidon's horses, which were included in the elaborate sculptural program of
gilt-bronze and ivory
, added by a Roman client to the temple of
Poseidon at Corinth
, are likely to have been hippocamps;
the Romanised Greek
Pausanias
described the rich ensemble in the
later 2nd century CE (Geography of Greece ii.1.7-.8):
Within the sanctuary of the god stand on the one side portrait statues of
athletes
who have won victories at the
Isthmian games
, on the other side pine
trees growing in a row, the greater number of them rising up straight. On
the temple, which is not very large, stand bronze
Tritons
. In the fore-temple are images, two
of Poseidon, a third of
Amphitrite
, and a Sea, which also is of
bronze. The offerings inside were dedicated in our time by
Herodes Atticus
, four horses, gilded except
for the hoofs, which are of ivory, and two gold
Tritons
beside the horses, with the parts
below the waist of ivory. On the car stand Amphitrite and Poseidon, and
there is the boy
Palaemon
upright upon a
dolphin
. These too are made of ivory and
gold. On the middle of the base on which the car is has been wrought a Sea
holding up the young
Aphrodite
, and on either side are the
nymphs called
Nereids
.
Hippocamp
Art Deco
fountain,
Kansas City, Missouri
,
(1937)
|
Hippocamps appear with the first Orientalising phase of
Etruscan civilization
: they remain a theme in
Etruscan tomb wall-paintings and reliefs, where they are sometimes provided with
wings, as they are in the Trevi fountain. Katharine Shepard found in the theme
an Etruscan belief in a sea-voyage to the other world.[8]
Aside from aigikampoi , the fish-tailed
goats representing
Capricorn
or
Aegeus
("goat-man")[9]
other fish-tailed animals rarely appearing in Greek art but more characteristic
of the Etruscans included leokampoi (fish-tailed
lions), taurokampoi (fish-tailed
bulls) or pardalokampoi (fish-tailed
leopards
).
The mythic hippocamp has been used as a
heraldic charge
, particularly since the
Renaissance, most often in the
armorial bearings
of people and places with
maritime associations. However, in a
blazon
, the terms hippocamp and
hippocampus now refer to the real animal called a seahorse , and the
terms seahorse and sea-horse refer to the mythological creature.
The above-mentioned fish hybrids are seen less frequently
Helmeted Athena with the cista and Erichthonius in his serpent form.
Roman, first century (Louvre
Museum)
In
Greek religion
and
mythology
, Athena or Athene , also
referred to as Pallas Athena/Athene , is the goddess of wisdom, courage,
inspiration, civilization, law and justice, just warfare, mathematics, strength,
strategy, the arts, crafts, and skill.
Minerva
is the
Roman goddess
identified with
Athena.
Marble Greek copy signed "Antiokhos", a first century BC variant of
Phidias
'
fifth-century
Athena Promachos
that stood on the
Acropolis
Athena is also a shrewd companion of
heroes and is the
goddess
of heroic endeavour. She is the
virgin
patroness of
Athens
. The Athenians founded the
Parthenon
on the Acropolis of her namesake
city, Athens (Athena Parthenos), in her honour.
Athena's veneration as the patron of Athens seems to have existed from the
earliest times, and was so persistent that archaic myths about her were recast
to adapt to cultural changes. In her role as a protector of the city (polis ),
many people throughout the Greek world worshiped Athena as Athena Polias
(Ἀθηνᾶ Πολιάς "Athena of the city"). The city of
Athens
and the goddess Athena essentially bear
the same name, "Athenai" meaning "[many] Athenas".
Patroness
Athenian
tetradrachm
representing the
goddess Athena
Athena as the goddess of philosophy became an aspect of the cult in Classical
Greece during the late 5th century B.C. She is the patroness of various crafts,
especially of weaving
, as Athena Ergane , and was
honored as such at festivals such as
Chalceia
. The metalwork of weapons also fell
under her patronage. She led battles (Athena
Promachos or the warrior maiden Athena Parthenos ) as the
disciplined, strategic side of war, in contrast to her brother
Ares, the patron of violence, bloodlust and slaughter—"the raw force
of war". Athena's wisdom includes the cunning intelligence (metis ) of
such figures as Odysseus
. Not only was this version of Athena
the opposite of Ares in combat, it was also the polar opposite of the serene
earth goddess version of the deity, Athena Polias .
Athena appears in Greek mythology as the patron and helper of many heroes,
including Odysseus
,
Jason
, and
Heracles
. In
Classical Greek
myths, she never consorts with
a lover, nor does she ever marry,earning the title Athena Parthenos . A
remnant of archaic myth depicts her as the adoptive mother of
Erechtheus
/Erichthonius
through the foiled rape by
Hephaestus
. Other variants relate that
Erichthonius, the serpent that accompanied Athena, was born to
Gaia
: when the rape failed, the semen landed on
Gaia and impregnated her. After Erechthonius was born, Gaia gave him to Athena.
Though Athena is a goddess of war strategy, she disliked fighting without
purpose and preferred to use wisdom to settle predicaments.The goddess only
encouraged fighting for a reasonable cause or to resolve conflict. As patron of
Athens she fought in the Trojan war on the side of the Achaeans.
Lady of Athens
Athena competed with
Poseidon
to be the patron deity of Athens,
which was yet unnamed, in a version of one
founding myth
. They agreed that each would give
the Athenians one gift and that the Athenians would choose the gift they
preferred. Poseidon struck the ground with his
trident
and a salt water spring sprang up; this
gave them a means of trade and water—Athens at its height was a significant sea
power, defeating the
Persian
fleet at the
Battle of Salamis
—but the water was salty and
not very good for drinking.
Athena, however, offered them the first domesticated
olive tree
. The Athenians (or their king,
Cecrops
) accepted the olive tree and with it
the patronage of Athena, for the olive tree brought wood, oil, and food.
Robert Graves
was of the opinion that
"Poseidon's attempts to take possession of certain cities are political myths"
which reflect the conflict between matriarchal and patriarchal religions.
Other sites of cult
Athena also was the patron goddess of several other Greek cities, notably
Sparta, where the archaic cult of
Athena Alea
had its sanctuaries in the
surrounding villages of
Mantineia
and, notably,
Tegea
. In Sparta itself, the temple of Athena
Khalkíoikos (Athena "of the Brazen House", often
latinized
as Chalcioecus ) was the
grandest and located on the Spartan acropolis; presumably it had a roof of
bronze. The forecourt of the Brazen House was the place where the most solemn
religious functions in Sparta took place.
Tegea was an important religious center of ancient Greece, containing the
Temple of Athena Alea
. The temenos was founded by
Aleus
,
Pausanias
was informed. Votive bronzes at the
site from the Geometric and Archaic periods take the forms of horses and deer;
there are
sealstone
and
fibulae
. In the Archaic period the nine
villages that underlie Tegea banded together in a
synoecism
to form one city. Tegea was listed in
Homer
's
Catalogue of Ships
as one of the cities that
contributed ships and men for the
Achaean assault on Troy
.
Judgment of Paris
Aphrodite is being surveyed by Paris, while Athena (the leftmost
figure) and Hera stand nearby.
El Juicio de Paris
by
Enrique Simonet
, ca. 1904
All the gods and goddesses as well as various mortals were invited to the
marriage of Peleus
and
Thetis
(the eventual parents of
Achilles
). Only
Eris
, goddess of discord, was not invited. She
was annoyed at this, so she arrived with a golden apple inscribed with the word
καλλίστῃ (kallistēi, "for the fairest"), which she threw among the goddesses.
Aphrodite, Hera, and Athena all claimed to be the fairest, and thus the rightful
owner of the apple.
The goddesses chose to place the matter before Zeus, who, not wanting to
favor one of the goddesses, put the choice into the hands of Paris, a
Trojan prince. After bathing in the spring of
Mount Ida
(where Troy was situated), the
goddesses appeared before Paris. The goddesses undressed and presented
themselves to Paris naked, either at his request or for the sake of winning.
Paris is awarding the apple to Aphrodite, while Athena makes a face.
Urteil des Paris by
Anton Raphael Mengs
, ca. 1757
Still, Paris could not decide, as all three were ideally beautiful, so they
resorted to bribes. Hera tried to bribe Paris with control over all
Asia and Europe
, while Athena offered wisdom, fame and
glory in battle, but Aphrodite came forth and whispered to Paris that if he were
to choose her as the fairest he would have the most beautiful mortal woman in
the world as a wife, and he accordingly chose her. This woman was
Helen
, who was, unfortunately for Paris,
already married to King
Menelaus
of
Sparta
. The other two goddesses were enraged by
this and through Helen's abduction by Paris they brought about the
Trojan War
.
The Parthenon
, Temple of Athena
Parthenos
Athena was given many other cult titles. She has the epithet Athena Ergane
as the patron of craftsmen and artisans. With the epithet
Athena Parthenos
("virgin") she was
especially worshipped in the festivals of the
Panathenaea
and
Pamboeotia
where both militaristic and athletic
displays took place.With the epithet
Athena Promachos
she led in battle (see
Promachos
). With the epithet Athena Polias
("of the city"), Athena was the protector of not only Athens but also of many
other cities, including
Argos
,
Sparta
,
Gortyn
,
Lindos
, and
Larisa
.
Masculinity and
feminism
Athena had an "androgynous compromise" that allowed her traits and what she
stood for to be attributed to male and female rulers alike over the course of
history (such as Marie de' Medici, Anne of Austria, Christina of Sweden, and
Catherine the Great)
J.J. Bachofen advocated that Athena was originally a maternal figure stable
in her security and poise but was caught up and perverted by a patriarchal
society; this was especially the case in Athens. The goddess adapted but could
very easily be seen as a god. He viewed it as "motherless paternity in the place
of fatherless maternity" where once altered, Athena's character was to be
crystallized as that of a patriarch.
Whereas Bachofen saw the switch to paternity on Athena's behalf as an
increase of power, Freud on the contrary perceived Athena as an "original mother
goddess divested of her power". In this interpretation, Athena was demoted to be
only Zeus's daughter, never allowed the expression of motherhood. Still more
different from Bachofen's perspective is the lack of role permanency in Freud's
view: Freud held that time and differing cultures would mold Athena to stand for
what was necessary to them.
Timoleon (Greek:
Τιμολέων), son of Timodemus, of
Corinth
(ca.
411–337 BC) was a Greek statesman and general.
As the champion of
Greece
against
Carthage
he
is closely connected with the history of
Sicily
,
especially
Syracuse
.
//
Early
life
When his brother
Timophanes
,
whose life he had saved in battle, took possession of the acropolis of Corinth
and made himself master of the city, Timoleon, after an ineffectual protest,
tacitly acquiesced while the friends who accompanied him put Timophanes to
death. Public opinion approved his conduct as patriotic; but the curses of his
mother and the indignation of some of his kinsfolk drove him into retirement for
twenty years.
Sicily
Sicily 431 BC
Because of the political problems of Syracuse and the threat from Sparta, a
group of Syracusans sent an appeal for help to Corinth which reached Corinth in
344 BC
Corinth
could not refuse help, though her chief citizens declined the responsibility of
attempting to establish a settled government in factious and turbulent Syracuse.
Timoleon, being named by an unknown voice in the popular assembly, was chosen
by a unanimous vote to undertake the mission, and set sail for Sicily with a few
of the leading citizens of Corinth and a small troop of Greek mercenaries. He
eluded a Carthaginian squadron and landed at
Tauromenium
(now Taormina), where he met with a friendly reception. At this
time
Hicetas
, tyrant of
Leontini
, was master of Syracuse, with the exception of the island of
Ortygia
,
which was occupied by
Dionysius
, still nominally tyrant.
Hicetas was defeated at Adranum, an inland town, and driven back to Syracuse.
In 343 Dionysius surrendered Ortygia on condition of being granted a safe
conduct to Corinth. Hicetas now received help from Carthage (60,000 men), but
ill-success roused mutual suspicion; the Carthaginians abandoned Hicetas, who
was besieged in Leontini, and who was then compelled to surrender. Timoleon was
thus master of Syracuse.
He at once began the work of restoration, bringing new settlers from the
mother-city and from Greece generally, and establishing a popular government on
the basis of the democratic laws of
Diocles
. The
citadel was razed to the ground, and a court of justice erected on its site. The
amphi-polos , or priest of Olympian
Zeus, who was
annually chosen by lot out of three clans, was invested with the chief
magistracy. The impress of Timoleon's reforms seems to have lasted to the days
of Augustus
.
Hicetas again induced Carthage to send (340–339) a great army (70,000), which
landed at Lilybaeum (now Marsala). With a miscellaneous levy of about 12,000
men, most of them mercenaries, Timoleon marched westwards across the island into
the neighbourhood of
Selinus
and won a great and decisive
victory on the Crimissus
. The general himself led his infantry, and the
enemy's discomfiture was completed by a blinding storm of rain and hail. This
victory gave the Greeks of Sicily many years of peace and safety from Carthage.
Carthage made, however, one more effort and despatched some mercenaries to
prolong the conflict between Timoleon and the tyrants. But it ended in the
defeat of Hicetas, who was taken prisoner and put to death. Carthage then agreed
to a treaty in 338
BC
by which, in Sicily, Carthage was confined to the west of the Halycus (Platani)
and undertook to give no further help to tyrants.
Retirement
Timoleon then retired into private life without assuming any title or office,
though he remained practically supreme, not only at Syracuse, but throughout the
island. Notwithstanding the many elements of discord Sicily seems to have been
during Timoleon's lifetime tranquil and contented. He became blind some time
before his death, but when important issues were under discussion he was carried
to the assembly to give his opinion, which was usually accepted. He was buried
at the cost of the citizens of Syracuse, who erected a monument to his memory in
their market-place, afterwards surrounded with porticoes, and a gymnasium called
Timoleonteum.
Tyrant
or Democrat?
The ancient historian
Timaeus
gave Timoleon an excellent write up; however, Polybios laid into
Timaeus for bias in favor of Timoleon and many modern historians have sided with
Polybios. Peter Green shares this skepticism but thinks it has gone too far.
While he concedes that Timoleon tended to play the democrat while using the
methods of a tyrant (albeit benevolent), he did make an effort to maintain the
outward forms of democracy. Further, he reformed Syracuse in a democratic
direction and demolished the stronghold of the island that had been so useful to
tyrants in the past.
Syracuse is a historic
city in
southern Italy
, the
capital
of the
province of Syracuse
. The city is famous for its rich Greek history,
culture
,
amphitheatres
,
architecture
and association to
Archimedes
,
playing an important role in ancient times as one of the top powers of the
Mediterranean
world; it is over 2,700 years old. Syracuse is located in the
south-east corner of the island of
Sicily
, right
by the Gulf of Syracuse next to the
Ionian Sea
.
The city was founded by
Ancient Greek
Corinthians
and became a very powerful
city-state
.
Syracuse was allied with
Sparta
and
Corinth
,
exerting influence over the entire
Magna Grecia
area of which it was the most important city. Once
described by Cicero
as "the greatest Greek city and the most beautiful of them all", it later became
part of the
Roman Republic
and
Byzantine Empire
. After this
Palermo
overtook it in importance, as the capital of the
Kingdom of Sicily
. Eventually the kingdom would be united with the
Kingdom of Naples
to form the
Two Sicilies
until the
Italian unification
of 1860.
In the modern day, the city is listed by
UNESCO
as a
World Heritage Site
along with the
Necropolis of Pantalica
. In the central area, the city itself has a
population of around 125,000 people. The inhabitants are known as Siracusans ,
and the local language spoken by its inhabitants is the
Sicilian language
. Syracuse is mentioned in the
Bible
in the
Acts of the Apostles
book at 28:12 as
Paul
stayed there.[2]
The patron saint
of the city is
Saint Lucy
;
she was born in Syracuse and her feast day,
Saint Lucy's Day
, is celebrated on 13 December.
Greek period
Syracuse and its surrounding area have been inhabited since ancient times, as
shown by the findings in the villages of Stentinello, Ognina, Plemmirio,
Matrensa, Cozzo Pantano and Thapsos , which already had a relationship
with
Mycenaean Greece
.
Syracuse was founded in 734 or 733 BC by Greek settlers from
Corinth
and Tenea
,
led by the oecist (colonizer)
Archias
, who called it Sirako , referring to a nearby salt marsh. The
nucleus of the ancient city was the small island of Ortygia . The settlers
found the land fertile and the native tribes to be reasonably well-disposed to
their presence. The city grew and prospered, and for some time stood as the most
powerful Greek city anywhere in the
Mediterranean
. Colonies were founded at
Akrai
(664 BC),
Kasmenai
(643 BC),
Akrillai
(VII century BC), Helorus
(VII century BC) and
Kamarina
(598 BC). The descendants of the first colonist, called Gamoroi , held the
power until they were expelled by the Killichiroi , the lower class of the
city. The former, however, returned to power in 485 BC, thanks to the help of
Gelo, ruler of
Gela. Gelo himself
became the despot of the city, and moved many inhabitants of Gela, Kamarina and
Megera to Syracuse, building the new quarters of
Tyche
and
Neapolis
outside the walls. His program of new constructions included a new
theater, designed by
Damocopos
, which gave the city a flourishing cultural life: this in turn
attracted personalities as
Aeschylus
,
Ario of
Metimma
, Eumelos of
Corinth
and
Sappho
, who had
been exiled here from
Mytilene
.
The enlarged power of Syracuse made unavoidable the clash against the
Carthaginians
, who ruled western Sicily. In the
Battle of Himera
, Gelo, who had allied with Theron of
Agrigento
,
decisively defeated the African force led by
Hamilcar
. A
temple
,
entitled to Athena
(on the site of the today's Cathedral), was erected in the city to commemorate
the event
Gelon was succedeed by his brother
Hiero
, who
fought
against the
Etruscans
at Cumae
in 474 BC. His rule was eulogized by poets like
Simonides of Ceos
,
Bacchylides
and Pindar
, who visited his court. A democratic regime was introduced by
Thrasybulos
(467 BC). The city continued to expand in
Sicily
,
fighting against the rebellious
Siculi
, and on the
Tyrrhenian Sea
, making expeditions up to
Corsica
and
Elba. In the late
5th century BC, Syracuse found itself at war with
Athens
, which
sought more resources to fight the
Peloponnesian War
. The Syracusans enlisted the aid of a general from
Sparta
, Athens'
foe in the war, to defeat the Athenians, destroy their ships, and leave them to
starve on the island (see
Sicilian Expedition
). In 401 BC, Syracuse contributed a force of 3,000
hoplites
and a general to
Cyrus the Younger
's
Army of the Ten Thousand
.
Then in the early 4th century BC, the
tyrant
Dionysius the Elder
was again at war against
Carthage
and, although losing Gela and Camarina, kept that power from capturing the whole
of Sicily. After the end of the conflict Dionysius built a massive fortress on
the Ortygia
island of the city and 22 km-long walls around all of Syracuse. Another period
of expansion saw the destruction of
Naxos
, Catania
and Lentini
, then Syracuse entered again in war against Carthage (397 BC). After
various changes of fortune, the Carthaginians managed to besiege Syracuse
itself, but were eventually pushed back by a pestilence. A treaty in 392 BC
allowed Syracuse to enlarge further its possessions, founding the cities of
Adrano, Ancona
,
Adria
, Tindari
and Tauromenos, and conquering
Reggio Calabria
on the continent. Apart from his battle deeds, Dionysius was
famous as a patron of art, and
Plato
himself
visited Syracuse several times.
His successor was
Dionysius the Younger
, who was however expelled by
Dion
in 356 BC. But the latter's despotic rule led in turn to his expulsion,
and Dionysius reclaimed his throne in 347 BC. A democratic government was
installed by Timoleon
in 345 BC. The long series of internal struggles had weakened
Syracuse's power on the island, and Timoleon tried to remedy this, defeating the
Carthaginians in 339 BC near the
Krimisos
river. But the struggle among the city's parties restarted after
his death and ended with the rise of another tyrant,
Agathocles
,
who seized power with a coup in 317 BC. He resumed the war against Carthage,
with alternate fortunes. He however scored a moral success, bringing the war to
the Carthaginians' native African soil, inflicting heavy losses to the enemy.
The war ended with another treaty of peace which did not prevent the
Carthaginians interfering in the politics of Syracuse after the death of
Agathocles (289 BC). The citizens called
Pyrrhus of Epirus
for help. After a brief period under the rule of Epirus,
Hiero II
seized power in 275 BC.
Hiero inaugurated a period of 50 years of peace and prosperity, in which
Syracause became one of the most renowned capitals of Antiquity. He issued the
so-called Lex Hieronica , which was later adopted by the Romans for their
administration of Sicily; he also had the theater enlarged and a new immense
altar
, the "Hiero's
Ara", built. Under his rule lived the most famous Syracusan, the
natural philosopher
Archimedes
.
Among his many inventions were various military engines including the
claw of Archimedes
, later used to resist the
Roman
siege of 214 BC–212 BC. Literary figures included
Theocritus
and others.
Hiero's successor, the young
Hieronymus
(ruled from 215 BC), broke the alliance with the Romans after
their defeat at the
Battle of Cannae
and accepted
Carthage
's
support. The Romans, led by consul
Marcus Claudius Marcellus
,
besieged the city
in 214 BC. The city held out for three years, but fell in
212 BC. It is believed to have fallen due to a peace party opening a small door
in the wall to negotiate a peace, but the Romans charged through the door and
took the city, killing Archimedes in the process.
From
Roman domination to the Middle Ages
Though declining slowly by the years, Syracuse maintained the status of
capital of the Roman government of Sicily and seat of the
praetor
. It
remained an important port for the trades between the Eastern and the Western
parts of the Empire.
Christianity
spread in the city through the efforts of
Paul of Tarsus
and Saint Marziano, the first bishop of the city, who made it
one of the main centres of
proselytism
in the West. In the age of the persecutions massive
catacombs
were carved, whose size is second only to those of Rome.
After a period of
Vandal
rule, Syracuse and the island was recovered by
Belisarius
for the
Byzantine Empire
(31 December 535). From 663 to 668 Syracuse was the seat of
Emperor Constans II
, as well as metropolis of the whole Sicilian Church.
Another siege in 878, resulted in the city coming under two centuries of
Muslim
rule. The
capital was moved from Syracuse to
Palermo
. The
Cathedral was converted into a
mosque
and the
quarter on the Ortygia island was gradually rebuilt along Islamic styles. The
city, nevertheless, maintained important trade relationships, and housed a
relatively flourishing cultural and artistic life: several Arab poets, including
Ibn Hamdis
,
the most important Sicilian poet of the 12th century, flourished in the city.
In 1038, the Byzantine general
George Maniaces
reconquered the city, sending the relics of St. Lucy to
Constantinople
. The eponymous castle on the cape of Ortygia bears his name,
although it was built under the
Hohenstaufen
rule. In 1085 the
Normans
entered Syracuse, one of the last
Arab
strongholds, after a summer-long siege by
Roger I of Sicily
and his son
Jordan of Hauteville
, who was given the city as count. New quarters were
built, and the cathedral was restored, as well as other churches.
In 1194
Henry VI
of Swabia
occupied Syracuse. After a short period of
Genoese
rule (1205–1220), which favoured a rise of trades, Syracuse was
conquered back by emperor
Frederick II
. He began the construction of the
Castello Maniace
, the Bishops' Palace and the Bellomo Palace. Frederick's
death brought a period of unrest and feudal anarchy. In the struggle between the
Anjou
and
Aragonese
monarchies, Syracuse sided with the Aragonese and defeated the
Anjou in 1298, receiving from the Spanish sovereigns great privileges in reward.
The pre-eminence of baronal families is also shown by the construction of the
palaces of Abela
,
Chiaramonte
, Nava
,
Montalto
. The history of
Ancient Greek
coinage can be divided (along
with most other Greek art forms) into four periods, the
Archaic
, the
Classical
, the
Hellenistic
and the
Roman
. The Archaic period extends from the
introduction of coinage to the Greek world during the
7th century BC
until the
Persian Wars
in about 480 BC. The Classical
period then began, and lasted until the conquests of
Alexander the Great
in about 330 BC, which
began the Hellenistic period, extending until the
Roman
absorption of the Greek world in the 1st
century BC. The Greek cities continued to produce their own coins for several
more centuries under Roman rule. The coins produced during this period are
called
Roman provincial coins
or Greek Imperial Coins.
Ancient Greek coins of all four periods span over a period of more than ten
centuries.
Weight
standards and denominations
Above: Six rod-shaped obeloi (oboloi) displayed at the
Numismatic Museum of Athens
,
discovered at
Heraion of Argos
. Below: grasp[1]
of six oboloi forming one drachma
Electrum
coin from
Ephesus
, 620-600 BC, known as
Phanes' coin
. Obverse:
Stag
grazing, ΦΑΝΕΩΣ (retrograde).
Reverse: Two incuse punches.
The basic standards of the Ancient Greek monetary system were the
Attic
standard, based on the Athenian
drachma
of 4.3 grams of silver and the
Corinthian
standard based on the
stater
of 8.6 grams of silver, that was
subdivided into three silver drachmas of 2.9 grams. The word
drachm
(a) means "a handful", literally "a
grasp". Drachmae were divided into six
obols
(from the Greek word for a
spit
), and six spits made a "handful". This
suggests that before coinage came to be used in Greece, spits in
prehistoric times
were used as measures of
daily transaction. In archaic/pre-numismatic times iron was valued for making
durable tools and weapons, and its casting in spit form may have actually
represented a form of transportable
bullion
, which eventually became bulky and
inconvenient after the adoption of precious metals. Because of this very aspect,
Spartan
legislation famously forbade issuance
of Spartan coin, and enforced the continued use of iron spits so as to
discourage avarice and the hoarding of wealth. In addition to its original
meaning (which also gave the
euphemistic
diminutive
"obelisk ",
"little spit"), the word obol (ὀβολός, obolós , or ὀβελός,
obelós ) was retained as a Greek word for coins of small value, still used as
such in Modern Greek
slang (όβολα, óvola ,
"monies").
The obol was further subdivided into tetartemorioi (singular
tetartemorion ) which represented 1/4 of an obol, or 1/24 of a drachm. This
coin (which was known to have been struck in
Athens
,
Colophon
, and several other cities) is
mentioned by Aristotle
as the smallest silver coin.:237
Various multiples of this denomination were also struck, including the
trihemitetartemorion (literally three half-tetartemorioi) valued at 3/8 of
an obol.:
Denominations of silver drachma |
Image |
Denomination |
Value |
Weight |
| Dekadrachm
| 10 drachmas
| 43 grams
|
| Tetradrachm
| 4 drachmas
| 17.2 grams
|
| Didrachm
| 2 drachmas
| 8.6 grams
|
| Drachma
| 6 obols
| 4.3 grams
|
| Tetrobol
| 4 obols
| 2.85 grams
|
| Triobol (hemidrachm)
| 3 obols
| 2.15 grams
|
| Diobol
| 2 obols
| 1.43 grams
|
| Obol
| 4 tetartemorions
| 0.72 grams
|
| Tritartemorion
| 3 tetartemorions
| 0.54 grams
|
| Hemiobol
| 2 tetartemorions
| 0.36 grams
|
| Trihemitartemorion
| 3/2 tetartemorions
| 0.27 grams
|
| Tetartemorion
|
| 0.18 grams
|
| Hemitartemorion
| ½ tetartemorion
| 0.09 grams
|
Archaic period
Archaic coinage
Uninscribed
electrum
coin from
Lydia
, 6th century BCE.
Obverse : lion head and sunburst Reverse : plain square
imprints, probably used to standardise weight
Electrum
coin from
Ephesus
, 620-600 BC. Obverse:
Forepart of stag. Reverse: Square incuse punch.
The first coins were issued in either Lydia or Ionia in Asia Minor at some
time before 600 BC, either by the non-Greek Lydians for their own use or perhaps
because Greek mercenaries wanted to be paid in precious metal at the conclusion
of their time of service, and wanted to have their payments marked in a way that
would authenticate them. These coins were made of
electrum
, an alloy of gold and silver that was
highly prized and abundant in that area. By the middle of the 6th century BC,
technology had advanced, making the production of pure gold and silver coins
simpler. Accordingly, King
Croesus
introduced a bi-metallic standard that
allowed for coins of pure gold and pure silver to be struck and traded in the
marketplace.
Coins of Aegina
Silver
stater
of Aegina, 550-530 BC.
Obv.
Sea turtle
with large pellets
down center. Rev. incuse square with eight sections. After the
end of the
Peloponnesian War
, 404 BC, Sea
turtle was replaced by the land
tortoise
.
Silver
drachma
of Aegina, 404-340 BC.
Obverse: Land
tortoise
. Reverse: inscription
AΙΓ[INAΤΟΝ] ([of the] Aeg[inetans]) "Aegina" and dolphin.
The Greek world was divided into more than two thousand self-governing
city-states (in
Greek
, poleis ), and more than half of
them issued their own coins. Some coins circulated widely beyond their polis ,
indicating that they were being used in inter-city trade; the first example
appears to have been the silver stater or didrachm of
Aegina
that regularly turns up in hoards in
Egypt
and the
Levant
, places which were deficient in silver
supply. As such coins circulated more widely, other cities began to mint coins
to this "Aeginetan" weight standard of (6.1 grams to the drachm), other cities
included their own symbols on the coins. This is not unlike present day
Euro coins, which are recognisably from a particular country, but
usable all over the
Euro zone
.
Athenian coins, however, were struck on the "Attic" standard, with a drachm
equaling 4.3 grams of silver. Over time, Athens' plentiful supply of silver from
the mines at
Laurion
and its increasing dominance in trade
made this the pre-eminent standard. These coins, known as "owls" because of
their central design feature, were also minted to an extremely tight standard of
purity and weight. This contributed to their success as the premier trade coin
of their era. Tetradrachms on this weight standard continued to be a widely used
coin (often the most widely used) through the classical period. By the time of
Alexander the Great
and his
Hellenistic successors
, this large denomination
was being regularly used to make large payments, or was often saved for
hoarding.
Classical period
A
Syracusan
tetradrachm
(c. 415–405
BC)
Obverse : head of the
nymph
Arethusa
, surrounded by
four swimming
dolphins
and a
rudder
Reverse : a racing
quadriga
, its
charioteer
crowned by the
goddess
Victory
in flight.
Tetradrachm of Athens , (5th century BC)
Obverse : a portrait of
Athena
, patron goddess of
the city, in
helmet
Reverse : the owl of Athens, with an
olive
sprig and the
inscription "ΑΘΕ", short for ΑΘΕΝΑΙΟΝ, "of the
Athenians
"
The
Classical period
saw Greek coinage reach a high
level of technical and aesthetic quality. Larger cities now produced a range of
fine silver and gold coins, most bearing a portrait of their patron god or
goddess or a legendary hero on one side, and a symbol of the city on the other.
Some coins employed a visual pun: some coins from
Rhodes
featured a
rose, since the Greek word for rose is rhodon . The use of
inscriptions on coins also began, usually the name of the issuing city.
The wealthy cities of Sicily produced some especially fine coins. The large
silver decadrachm (10-drachm) coin from
Syracuse
is regarded by many collectors as the
finest coin produced in the ancient world, perhaps ever. Syracusan issues were
rather standard in their imprints, one side bearing the head of the nymph
Arethusa
and the other usually a victorious
quadriga
. The
tyrants of Syracuse
were fabulously rich, and
part of their
public relations
policy was to fund
quadrigas
for the
Olympic chariot race
, a very expensive
undertaking. As they were often able to finance more than one quadriga at a
time, they were frequent victors in this highly prestigious event.
Syracuse was one of the epicenters of numismatic art during the classical
period. Led by the engravers Kimon and Euainetos, Syracuse produced some of the
finest coin designs of antiquity.
Hellenistic period
Gold 20-stater
of
Eucratides I
, the largest gold coin
ever minted in Antiquity.
Drachma of
Alexandria
, 222-235 AD. Obverse:
Laureate head of
Alexander Severus
, KAI(ΣΑΡ)
MAP(ΚΟΣ) AYP(ΗΛΙΟΣ) ΣЄY(ΑΣΤΟΣ) AΛЄΞANΔPOΣ ЄYΣЄ(ΒΗΣ). Reverse: Bust
of
Asclepius
.
The Hellenistic period was characterized by the spread of Greek
culture across a large part of the known world. Greek-speaking kingdoms were
established in Egypt
and
Syria
, and for a time also in
Iran and as far east as what is now
Afghanistan
and northwestern
India
. Greek traders spread Greek coins across
this vast area, and the new kingdoms soon began to produce their own coins.
Because these kingdoms were much larger and wealthier than the Greek city states
of the classical period, their coins tended to be more mass-produced, as well as
larger, and more frequently in gold. They often lacked the aesthetic delicacy of
coins of the earlier period.
Still, some of the
Greco-Bactrian
coins, and those of their
successors in India, the
Indo-Greeks
, are considered the finest examples
of
Greek numismatic art
with "a nice blend of
realism and idealization", including the largest coins to be minted in the
Hellenistic world: the largest gold coin was minted by
Eucratides
(reigned 171–145 BC), the largest
silver coin by the Indo-Greek king
Amyntas Nikator
(reigned c. 95–90 BC). The
portraits "show a degree of individuality never matched by the often bland
depictions of their royal contemporaries further West" (Roger Ling, "Greece and
the Hellenistic World").
The most striking new feature of Hellenistic coins was the use of portraits
of living people, namely of the kings themselves. This practice had begun in
Sicily, but was disapproved of by other Greeks as showing
hubris
(arrogance). But the kings of
Ptolemaic Egypt
and
Seleucid Syria
had no such scruples: having
already awarded themselves with "divine" status, they issued magnificent gold
coins adorned with their own portraits, with the symbols of their state on the
reverse. The names of the kings were frequently inscribed on the coin as well.
This established a pattern for coins which has persisted ever since: a portrait
of the king, usually in profile and striking a heroic pose, on the obverse, with
his name beside him, and a coat of arms or other symbol of state on the reverse.
Minting
All Greek coins were
handmade
, rather than machined as modern coins
are. The design for the obverse was carved (in
incuso
) into a block of bronze or possibly
iron, called a
die
. The design of the reverse was carved into
a similar punch. A blank disk of gold, silver, or electrum was cast in a mold
and then, placed between these two and the punch struck hard with a hammer,
raising the design on both sides of the coin.
Coins as
a symbol of the city-state
Coins of Greek city-states depicted a unique
symbol
or feature, an early form of
emblem
, also known as
badge
in numismatics, that represented their
city and promoted the prestige of their state. Corinthian stater for example
depicted pegasus
the mythological winged stallion, tamed
by their hero
Bellerophon
. Coins of
Ephesus
depicted the
bee
sacred to
Artemis
. Drachmas of Athens depicted the
owl of Athena
. Drachmas of
Aegina
depicted a
chelone
. Coins of
Selinunte
depicted a "selinon" (σέλινον
- celery
). Coins of
Heraclea
depicted
Heracles
. Coins of
Gela depicted a man-headed bull, the personification of the river
Gela
. Coins of
Rhodes
depicted a "rhodon" (ῥόδον[8]
- rose
). Coins of
Knossos
depicted the
labyrinth
or the mythical creature
minotaur
, a symbol of the
Minoan Crete
. Coins of
Melos
depicted a "mēlon" (μήλον -
apple
). Coins of
Thebes
depicted a Boeotian shield.
Corinthian stater with
pegasus
Coin of
Rhodes
with a
rose
Didrachm of
Selinunte
with a
celery
Coin of
Ephesus
with a
bee
Stater of
Olympia
depicting
Nike
Coin of
Melos
with an
apple
Obolus from
Stymphalia
with a
Stymphalian bird
Coin of
Thebes
with a Boeotian shield
Coin of Gela
with a man-headed bull,
the personification of the river
Gela
Didrachm of
Knossos
depicting the
Minotaur
Commemorative coins
Dekadrachm
of
Syracuse
[disambiguation
needed ]. Head of Arethusa or queen
Demarete. ΣΥΡΑΚΟΣΙΟΝ (of the Syracusians), around four dolphins
The use of
commemorative coins
to celebrate a victory or
an achievement of the state was a Greek invention. Coins are valuable, durable
and pass through many hands. In an age without newspapers or other mass media,
they were an ideal way of disseminating a political message. The first such coin
was a commemorative decadrachm issued by
Athens
following the Greek victory in the
Persian Wars
. On these coins that were struck
around 480 BC, the owl
of Athens, the goddess
Athena
's sacred bird, was depicted facing the
viewer with wings outstretched, holding a spray of olive leaves, the
olive tree
being Athena's sacred plant and also
a symbol of peace and prosperity. The message was that Athens was powerful and
victorious, but also peace-loving. Another commemorative coin, a silver
dekadrachm known as " Demareteion", was minted at
Syracuse
at approximately the same time to
celebrate the defeat of the
Carthaginians
. On the obverse it bears a
portrait of
Arethusa
or queen Demarete.
Ancient Greek coins
today
Collections of Ancient Greek coins are held by museums around the world, of
which the collections of the
British Museum
, the
American Numismatic Society
, and the
Danish National Museum
are considered to be the
finest. The American Numismatic Society collection comprises some 100,000
ancient Greek coins from many regions and mints, from Spain and North Africa to
Afghanistan. To varying degrees, these coins are available for study by
academics and researchers.
There is also an active collector market for Greek coins. Several auction
houses in Europe and the United States specialize in ancient coins (including
Greek) and there is also a large on-line market for such coins.
Hoards of Greek coins are still being found in Europe, Middle East, and North
Africa, and some of the coins in these hoards find their way onto the market.
Coins are the only art form from the Ancient world which is common enough and
durable enough to be within the reach of ordinary collectors.
|